Homosexuality and 996: Difference between pages
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'''Homosexuality''' refers to [[human sexual behavior|sexual behavior]] with or [[same-sex attraction|attraction]] to people of the same sex, or to a [[homosexual orientation]]. As a [[sexual orientation]], homosexuality refers to "having sexual and romantic attraction primarily or exclusively to members of one’s own sex"; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them."<ref name="apahelp">{{citation |url=http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31 |title=Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |periodical=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]HelpCenter.org |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]]}}</ref><ref name="brief">[http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/courts/supreme/highprofile/documents/Amer_Psychological_Assn_Amicus_Curiae_Brief.pdf APA California Amicus Brief Please fix this cite<!--Bot-generated title--> and remove this comment when done.]</ref> Homosexuality, [[bisexuality]], and [[heterosexuality]] together make up the three main classifications of sexual orientation and are the factors in the [[Heterosexual-homosexual continuum]]. The exact proportion of the population that is homosexual is difficult to estimate reliably,<ref name="levay">LeVay, Simon (1996). ''Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality.'' Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9 </ref> but most recent studies place it at 2–7%.<ref name = ACSF1992>ACSF Investigators (1992). AIDS and sexual behaviour in France. ''Nature, 360,'' 407–409.</ref><ref name = Billy1993>Billy, J. O. G., Tanfer, K., Grady, W. R., & Klepinger, D. H. (1993). The sexual behavior of men in the United States. ''Family Planning Perspectives, 25,'' 52–60.</ref><ref name = Binson1995>Binson, D., Michaels, S., Stall, R., Coates, T. J., Gagnon, & Catania, J. A. (1995). Prevalence and social distribution of men who have sex with men: United States and its urban centers. ''Journal of Sex Research, 32,'' 245–254.</ref><ref name = Bogaert2004>Bogaert, A. F. (2004). The prevalence of male homosexuality: The effect of fraternal birth order and variation in family size. ''Journal of Theoretical Biology, 230,'' 33–37.</ref><ref name = Fay1989>Fay, R. E., Turner, C. F., Klassen, A. D., & Gagnon, J. H. (1989). Prevalence and patterns of same-gender sexual contact among men. ''Science, 243,'' 338–348.</ref><ref name = Johnson1992>Johnson, A. M., Wadsworth, J., Wellings, K., Bradshaw, S., & Field, J. (1992). Sexual lifestyles and HIV risk. ''Nature, 360,'' 410–412.</ref><ref name = Laumann1994>Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). ''The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name = Sell1995>Sell, R. L., Wells, J. A., & Wypij, D. (1995). The prevalence of homosexual behavior in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24,'' 235–248.</ref><ref name = Wellings1994>Wellings, K., Field, J., Johnson, A., & Wadsworth, J. (1994). ''Sexual behavior in Britain: The national survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles.'' London, UK: Penguin Books.</ref> However, according to a [[survey]], 12% of [[Norwegians]] have had homosexual sex. <ref>http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article633160.ece</ref> |
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__NOTOC__ |
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==Events== |
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===By Place=== |
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====Europe==== |
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* [[March]]/[[April]] — [[Pope John XV]] dies before being able to crown [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]], [[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of Germany]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Otto resides in [[Pavia]] while waiting for the election of the next [[Pope]]. |
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* [[May 21]] — Sixteen-year-old [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] is crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by his cousin [[Pope Gregory V]]. |
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* [[October 24]] — [[Hugh Capet of France|Hugh Capet]], [[King of France]] dies and is succeeded by his son [[Robert II of France]]. |
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* [[November 1]] — Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] issues a deed to Gottschalk, Bishop of Freising, which is the oldest known document using the name ''[[Ostarrîchi]]'' ([[Austria]] in [[Old High German]]). |
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====Asia==== |
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* [[Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah]], fifth [[Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] in [[History of Arab Egypt|Egypt]], dies and is succeeded by his son [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]]. |
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* The [[Niujie Mosque]] is constructed in [[Beijing]]. |
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===By Topic=== |
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====Religion==== |
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* [[May 3]] — [[Pope Gregory V]] succeeds [[Pope John XV]] as the 138th [[pope]]. He was 24-year-old Bruno of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], grandson of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]] and first cousin of Otto III. He is the first [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] Pope. |
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==Births== |
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Sexual orientation is also distinguished from other aspects of sexuality, "including [[sex|biological sex]] (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being male or female), [[gender identity]] (the psychological sense of being male, female or [[third gender|other]]), and [[gender role|social gender role]] (adherence to cultural norms defining feminine and masculine behavior)."<ref name="brief"/> |
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* [[Drogo of Mantes]], count of Valois and the Vexin |
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==Deaths== |
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Etymologically, the word ''homosexual'' is a [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] hybrid with ''homos'' (sometimes confused with the later Latin meaning of "man", as in ''[[Homo sapiens]]'') deriving from the Greek word for ''same'', thus connoting sexual acts and affections between members of the same sex, including [[lesbian]]ism.<ref name="uwaterloo">{{citation |title=Etymology of Homosexuality |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |url=http://www.drama.uwaterloo.ca/Gross%20Indecency/homosexuality_word.shtml |periodical=University of Waterloo}}</ref><ref> See [[Men who have sex with men]] and [[Women who have sex with women]]</ref> The word ''gay'' generally refers to male homosexuality, but is sometimes used in a broader sense, especially in the media{{Fact|date=August 2008}}, to refer to homosexuality in general. In the context of sexuality, the word ''[[lesbian]]'' always denotes female homosexuality. |
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* [[March]]/[[April]] — [[Pope John XV]] |
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* [[October 24]] — [[Hugh Capet of France|Hugh Capet]], [[King of France]] (b. [[938]]) |
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* [[November 20]] — [[Richard I of Normandy]] |
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* [[Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah]], fifth [[Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] in [[History of Arab Egypt|Egypt]] |
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* [[Li Fang]], Chinese scholar and encyclopedist (born [[925]]) |
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There is much evidence of both acceptance and repression of homosexual behavior throughout recorded history. During the last several decades, there has been a trend towards increased visibility, recognition, and legal rights for homosexuals, including marriage and civil unions, parenting rights, and equal access to health care. |
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== Overview == |
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Homosexuality has been a feature of human culture since earliest history (see [[#History|History]] section below). Generally and most famously in [[Homosexuality in ancient Greece|ancient Greece]], certain forms of erotic attraction and sexual pleasure between males were often an ingrained, accepted part of the cultural norm. Particular sexual activities (such as [[anal sex]] in some cultures, or [[oral sex]] in others), however, were disapproved of, even as other aspects were accepted and admired. In cultures under the sway of [[Abrahamic religions]], the [[Sodomy law#History|law]] and the [[Homosexuality and Christianity#History of Christianity and homosexuality|church]] established [[sodomy]] as a transgression against divine law, a "[[crime against nature]]" practiced by choice, and subject to severe penalties, up to [[capital punishment]] — often inflicted by means of fire so as to purify the unholy action. The condemnation of penetrative sex between males, however, predates Christian belief, as it was frequent in ancient Greece, whence the theme of action "against nature," traceable to [[Plato]], originated.<ref>"... sow illegitimate and bastard seed in courtesans, or sterile seed in males in defiance of nature." Plato in THE LAWS (Book VIII p.841 edition of Stephanus) or p.340, edition of Penguin Books, 1972.</ref> |
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In the last two decades of the 19th Century, a different view began to predominate in [[Medicine|medical]] and [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable [[sexual orientation]]. [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]] coined the term ''homosexual'' in 1869 in a pamphlet arguing against a [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] anti-sodomy law.<ref>Feray, Jean-Claude; Herzer, Manfred (1990). "Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny". Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 19, No. 1.</ref><ref name="gayhistory">{{citation |url=http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/events/kertbeny.htm |title=Biography: Karl Maria Kertbeny |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=GayHistory.com}}</ref> [[Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing|Richard von Krafft-Ebing]]'s 1886 book ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis (book)|Psychopathia Sexualis]]'' elaborated on the concept.<ref name="gayhistory"/> |
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In 1897, British physician [[Havelock Ellis]] published similar views in his influential book ''Sexual Inversion''.<ref name="sexualinversion">{{citation |title=Sexual Inversion |first=Havelock |last=Ellis |first2=John Addington |last2=Symonds |year=1975 |publisher=Arno Press |isbn=0405073631}} (reprint)</ref> Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of [[Magnus Hirschfeld]]'s [[Scientific Humanitarian Committee]], which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against [[Paragraph 175|anti-sodomy laws in Germany]], as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as [[Edward Carpenter]] and [[John Addington Symonds]]. |
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In the course of the 20th Century, homosexuality became a subject of considerable study and debate in Western societies, especially after the modern [[gay rights movement]] began in 1969. Once viewed by authorities as a [[pathology]] or [[mental illness]] to be cured, homosexuality is now more often investigated as part of a larger impetus to understand the [[Biology and sexual orientation|biology]], [[psychology]], [[politics]], [[genetics]], [[history]] and cultural variations of sexual practice and identity. The [[Homosexuality laws of the world|legal and social status]] of people who engage in homosexual acts or identify as [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] varies enormously across the world, and in some places remains hotly contested in political and religious debate. |
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== Etymology and usage == |
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{{main|Terminology of homosexuality}} |
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[[Image:Hyakinthos.jpg|thumb|''[[Anemoi#West wind|Zephyrus]] and [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]]''<br /> [[Attica|Attic]] [[Red-figure pottery|red-figure]] cup from [[Tarquinia]], 480 BC ([[Boston Museum of Fine Arts]])]] |
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The adjective ''homosexual'' describes behavior, relationships, people, orientation etc. The adjectival form literally means "same sex", being a [[Hybrid word|hybrid]] formed from the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''homo-'' ("same"), and the Latin root ''sex''. Many modern style guides in the U.S. recommend against using ''homosexual'' as a noun, instead using ''gay man'' or ''lesbian''.<ref name="glaad">[http://www.glaad.org/media/guide/offensive.php Media Reference Guide] (citing AP, NY Times, Washington Post style guides), [[GLAAD]]. Retrieved 2007-05-10.</ref> Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of ''homosexual'' as having a negative and discredited clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior, and not to romantic feelings.<ref name="glaad" /> ''Gay'' and ''lesbian'' are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] [[LGBT]] (sometimes written as GLBT), in which ''B'' and ''T'' refer to [[Bisexuality|bisexuals]] and [[transgender]] people. These style guides are not always followed by mainstream media sources.<ref>See, for example, [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article2814158.ece You calling me a poof?] The Times; [http://www.theherald.co.uk/news/news/display.var.1966466.0.Scottish_hate_crime_laws_extended_to_homosexuals_and_disabled.php Scottish Hate Crime Laws extended to Homosexuals and Disabled] The Herald, January 2008; and [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4160891.stm Council praised for 'gay' policy] BBC news (see third paragraph)</ref> |
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The first known appearance of ''homosexual'' in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]], published anonymously.<ref name="gayhistory2">{{citation |url=http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/events/1869b.htm |title=Kertbeny Coins "Homosexual" |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=GayHistory.com }}</ref> The prevalence of the concept owes much to the work of the German psychiatrist [[Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing]] and his 1886 work ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis (book)|Psychopathia Sexualis]]''.<ref name="psexualis">{{citation |url=http://www.kino.com/psychopathia/history.html |title=Psychopathia Sexualis |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=Kino.com}}</ref> As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy. These continue to influence the development of the modern concept of [[sexual orientation]], gaining associations with [[romantic love]] and [[Sexual identity|identity]] in addition to its original, exclusively sexual meaning. |
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Although early writers also used the adjective ''homosexual'' to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction and activity. The term ''[[homosocial]]'' is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, ''[[homophilia]]''. Other terms include ''[[men who have sex with men]]'' or ''MSM'' (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity), ''[[Homoeroticism|homoerotic]]'' (referring to works of art), ''[[Bi-curious|heteroflexible]]'' (referring to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities), and ''[[metrosexual]]'' (referring to a non-gay man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion, and design). Pejorative terms in English include ''[[queer]]'', ''[[faggot]]'', ''[[fairy]]'', ''[[poof]]'', and ''[[homo]]''. Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been "reclaimed" as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of [[queer studies]], [[queer theory]], and even the popular American television program ''[[Queer Eye for the Straight Guy]]''. As with [[ethnic slur]]s and [[racial slur]]s, however, the misuse of these terms can still be highly offensive; the range of acceptable use depends on the context and speaker. Conversely, ''gay'', a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in [[gay liberation]] and [[gay rights]]), has come into widespread [[Gay#Pejorative non-sexualized usage|pejorative use]] among young people. |
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== Sexuality == |
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Homosexuality is a broad term which includes several aspects of same-sex [[sexuality]], such as [[sexual orientation]], [[sexual identity]], and [[human sexual behavior|sexual behaviors]]. |
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=== Homosexual orientation === |
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{{main|Homosexual orientation}} |
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Homosexuality as a [[sexual orientation]] refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions primarily to" people of the same sex; "it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them."<ref name="apahelp">{{citation |url=http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31 |title=Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |periodical=[[American Psychological Association|APA]]HelpCenter.org |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]]}}</ref><ref name="brief">[http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/courts/supreme/highprofile/documents/Amer_Psychological_Assn_Amicus_Curiae_Brief.pdf APA California Amicus Brief Please fix this cite<!--Bot-generated title--> and remove this comment when done.]</ref> The exact proportion of the population that is homosexual is difficult to estimate reliably,<ref name="levay">LeVay, Simon (1996). ''Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality.'' Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9 </ref> but studies place it at 2–7%.<ref name = ACSF1992>ACSF Investigators (1992). AIDS and sexual behaviour in France. ''Nature, 360,'' 407–409.</ref><ref name = Billy1993>Billy, J. O. G., Tanfer, K., Grady, W. R., & Klepinger, D. H. (1993). The sexual behavior of men in the United States. ''Family Planning Perspectives, 25,'' 52–60.</ref><ref name = Binson1995>Binson, D., Michaels, S., Stall, R., Coates, T. J., Gagnon, & Catania, J. A. (1995). Prevalence and social distribution of men who have sex with men: United States and its urban centers. ''Journal of Sex Research, 32,'' 245–254.</ref><ref name = Bogaert2004>Bogaert, A. F. (2004). The prevalence of male homosexuality: The effect of fraternal birth order and variation in family size. ''Journal of Theoretical Biology, 230,'' 33–37.</ref><ref name = Fay1989>Fay, R. E., Turner, C. F., Klassen, A. D., & Gagnon, J. H. (1989). Prevalence and patterns of same-gender sexual contact among men. ''Science, 243,'' 338–348.</ref><ref name = Johnson1992>Johnson, A. M., Wadsworth, J., Wellings, K., Bradshaw, S., & Field, J. (1992). Sexual lifestyles and HIV risk. ''Nature, 360,'' 410–412.</ref><ref name = Laumann1994>Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). ''The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name = Sell1995>Sell, R. L., Wells, J. A., & Wypij, D. (1995). The prevalence of homosexual behavior in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples. ''Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24,'' 235–248.</ref><ref name = Wellings1994>Wellings, K., Field, J., Johnson, A., & Wadsworth, J. (1994). ''Sexual behavior in Britain: The national survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles.'' London, UK: Penguin Books.</ref> It is distinguished from a [[bisexual]] or [[heterosexual]] orientation. |
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Researchers have looked into a variety of possible causes for a homosexual orientation, including [[Biology and sexual orientation|biological influences]], [[Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation|prenatal hormones]], prenatal stress, [[Fraternal birth order and sexual orientation|fraternal birth order]], and [[Environment and sexual orientation|environmental influences]].<ref name="aappub">{{citation |title=Sexual Orientation and Adolescents |url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/pediatrics;113/6/1827.pdf |periodical=[[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Clinical Report |accessdate=[[2007-02-23]]|quote=Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences}}</ref> The [[American Psychiatric Association]] has stated "some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person’s lifetime."<ref name="Psych">{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.aglp.org/pages/cfactsheets.html#Anchor-Gay-14210 |
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|title=Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues |
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|author=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |
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|publisher=Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrics |
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|month=May | year=2000}}</ref> However, the [[American Psychological Association]] has stated "most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation."<ref name="answers"> |
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{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.apa.org/topics/orientation.html |
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|title=Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality |
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|accessdate=2008-05-26 |
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|publisher=American Psychological Association |
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}}</ref> |
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=== Sexual identity === |
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{{main|Sexual identity}} |
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Homosexuality as a sexual identity refers to sexual identity as a [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] person. In a narrow sense, gay refers to male homosexuality, but it often is used in its broadest sense, especially in media headlines and reports, to refer to homosexuality in general. Lesbian, however, always denotes female homosexuality. |
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=== Sexual behavior === |
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[[Image:World homosexuality laws.svg|thumb|350px|{{legend|#c0c0c0|No information}} |
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'''Homosexuality legal''' |
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{{legend|#57781f|Same sex marriages allowed}} |
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{{legend|#99b453|Same sex unions allowed}} |
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{{legend|#bed688|No same sex unions allowed}} |
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{{legend|#7fbcff|International marriage licenses recognized}} |
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'''Homosexuality illegal''' |
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{{legend|#f9dc36|Minimal penalty}} |
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{{legend|#e73e21|Life in prison}} |
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{{further|[[Same-sex relationship]]}} |
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Homosexuality as a sexual behavior refers to sexual relationships between two people of the same-sex. Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other on measures of relationship satisfaction and commitment. Many lesbians and gay men form durable relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived together 10 or more years.<ref>[http://www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.html#whatisnature APA - What is Nature]</ref> |
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Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships vary over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death. |
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Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated persons above the local [[age of consent]]. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including [[same-sex marriage|marriage]]. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships; that is, in some jurisdictions homosexual activity is illegal. Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as [[Iran]] and parts of [[Nigeria]]. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement. |
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''See [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]''. |
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== History == |
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{{main|LGBT history|Timeline of LGBT history}} |
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The lives of many historical figures, including [[Socrates]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], [[Hadrian]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]], [[Leonardo DaVinci]], and [[Christopher Marlowe]] included or were centered upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own sex. Terms such as ''[[gay]]'' or ''[[bisexual]]'' have been often applied to them; some, such as [[Michel Foucault]], regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary [[social construction|construction]] of sexuality foreign to their times,<ref name=foucault>{{cite book |title=The History of Sexuality |first=Michel |last=Foucault |authorlink=Michel Foucault |year=1986 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0394417755}}</ref> though others challenge this.<ref>Thomas K. Hubbard, Review of David M. Halperin, ''How to Do the History of Homosexuality.'' in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2003.09.22</ref> |
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A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,<ref name="boswell1">{{citation |first=John |last=Boswell |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/231.ctl |title=Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-226-06711-7}}</ref> which describe individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality. |
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===Africa=== |
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Though often ignored or suppressed by European explorers and colonialists, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. Anthropologists [[Stephen O. Murray|Stephen Murray]] and [[Will Roscoe]] reported that women in [[Lesotho]] engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships," named ''motsoalle.''<ref name=murrayroscoe>{{cite book|title=Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities |last=Murray |first=Stephen (ed.) |authorlink=Stephen O. Murray |coauthors=[[Will Roscoe|Roscoe, Will]] (ed.) |year=1998 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York |isbn=0312238290 }}</ref> [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]] also recorded that male [[Azande]] warriors (in the northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]) routinely took on boy-wives between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in intercrural sex with their older husbands. The practice had died out by the early 20th century, after Europeans had gained control of African countries, but was recounted to Evans-Pritchard by the elders he spoke to.<ref name=evanspritchard>[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard|Evans-Pritchard, E. E.]] (December, 1970). Sexual Inversion among the Azande. American Anthropologist, New Series, 72(6), 1428-1434.</ref> |
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[[sl:996]] |
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[[sr:996]] |
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=== Americas === |
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[[su:996]] |
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[[Image:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|''Dance to the Berdache''<br />[[Sac and Fox Nation]] ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796-1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]] |
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[[fi:996]] |
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[[sv:996]] |
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Among [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] prior to European colonization, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to center around the figure of the [[Two-Spirit]] individual. Such people seem to have been recognized by the majority of tribes{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognized early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then the child was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly [[Shamanism|shamans]] and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work{{Fact|date=July 2008}}. |
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[[tt:996]] |
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[[th:พ.ศ. 1539]] |
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[[Image:Balboamurder.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Balboa setting his [[war dog]]s upon Indian practitioners of male love in 1513; New York Public Library]] |
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[[tr:996]] |
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Homosexual and [[transgender]] individuals were also common among other pre-[[Spanish colonization of the Americas|conquest]] civilizations in [[Latin America]], such as the [[Aztec]]s, [[Mayan]]s, Quechas, [[Moche]]s, [[Zapotecs]], and the [[Tupinambá]] of Brazil.<ref name="glbtqlatinamerica">{{citation |first=Ben |last=Pablo |year=2004 |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/latin_america_colonial.html |title=Latin America: Colonial] |periodical=[[glbtq.com]] |accessdate=[[2007-08-01]]}}</ref><ref name="glbtqmex">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Murray |first=Stephen |authorlink=Stephen O. Murray |editor=Claude J. Summers |encyclopedia= glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture |title=Mexico |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/mexico.html |accessdate=2007-08-01 |edition= |date= |year=2004 |publisher=[[glbtq.com|glbtq, Inc.]] |location= |id= |doi= |pages=}}</ref> |
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[[uk:996]] |
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The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover "sodomy" openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the ''[[berdache]]s'' (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution and burning. In a famous example of cruelty against homosexuals, in 1513 the [[conquistador]] [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] <blockquote>discovered that the village of Quarequa [in modern-day Panama] was stained by the foulest vice. The king’s brother and a number of other courtiers were dressed as women, and according to the accounts of the neighbours shared the same passion. Vasco ordered forty of them to be torn to pieces by dogs. The Spaniards commonly used their dogs in fighting against these naked people, and the dogs threw themselves upon them as though they were wild boars on timid deer.<ref name="coello">Mártir de Anglería, Pedro. (1530). ''[http://www.udel.edu/LAS/Vol3-2Coello.html#Introduction Décadas del Mundo Nuevo]''. Quoted by Coello de la Rosa, Alexandre. "Good Indians", "Bad Indians", "What Christians?": The Dark Side of the New World in Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478-1557), ''Delaware Review of Latin American Studies'', Vol. 3, No. 2, 2002.</ref></blockquote> |
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[[vec:996]] |
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[[zh-yue:996年]] |
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=== East Asia === |
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[[zh:996年]] |
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[[Image:Voyeuriste.jpg|thumb|220px|left|A woman spying on a pair of male lovers, [[Qing Dynasty]]. Chinese Sexual Culture Museum in Tongli, Suzhou, China.]] |
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In [[East Asia]], same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history. Early European travelers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display. None of the East Asian countries today have specific legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior. |
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[[Homosexuality in China]], known as the ''pleasures of the bitten peach,'' ''the cut sleeve,'' or ''the southern custom,'' has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities (recently some fashionable young Chinese tend to euphemistically use the term "brokeback," 斷背 ''duanbei'' to refer to male homosexuals, from the success of director [[Ang Lee]]'s film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'').<ref name="jongo">{{citation |url=http://news.jongo.com/articles/07/0820/30157/MzAxNTcoluZIoia.html |title=Most frequently used new coinages in daily Chinese |date=August 20, 2007 |accessdate=[[2007-09-07]] |periodical=Jongo News}}</ref> The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the classical novel ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. |
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This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships. |
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Similarly, in [[Thailand]], ''[[Kathoey]]'', or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While ''Kathoey'' may encompass simple [[effeminacy]] or [[transvestite|transvestism]], it most commonly is treated in [[Thai culture]] as a [[third gender]]. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior. |
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=== Europe === |
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{{Further|[[Homosexuality in ancient Greece]], [[Homosexuality in ancient Rome]]}} |
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The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as [[Greek mythology|mythographic materials]]) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|ancient Greece]]. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free adult male and a free adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder. [[Plato]] praised its benefits in his early writings,<ref name=plato1>[[Plato]], [[Phaedrus]] in the ''[[Symposium]]''</ref> but in his late works proposed its prohibition.<ref name=plato2>Plato, Laws, 636D & 835E</ref> |
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[[Image:Warren Cup BM GR 1999.4-26.1 n1.jpg|thumb|Roman man and youth in bed, middle of the 1st century [[Anno Domini|AD]]. Found in Bittir (?), near [[Jerusalem]]]] |
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In [[Ancient Rome]] the situation was reversed. Though the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, free boys were off limits as sexual partners<!--, while the carnal aspect of relations with slaves or freed youths took the place of pedagogy....?! I hardly believe it could replace the art and science of teaching. Please find the right word (did you mean "pederasty"?) and then reinstate this clause.-->. All the emperors with the exception of [[Claudius]] took male lovers. The Hellenophile emperor [[Hadrian]] is renowned for his relationship with [[Antinous]], but the Christian emperor [[Theodosius I]] decreed a law on August 6, 390, condemning passive males to be burned at the stake. [[Justinian I|Justinian]], towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on [[brothels]] of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] in 518. |
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During the [[Renaissance]], rich cities in northern Italy, [[Florence]] and [[Venice]] in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.<ref>Rocke, Michael, (1996), ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence'', ISBN 0-195122-92-5</ref><ref>Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), ''The Boundaries of Eros'', ISBN 0-195034-65-1</ref> But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the [[Officers of the Night]] court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk [[Girolamo Savonarola]]. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], who in his ''Rape of Ganymede'' no longer depicted [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey. |
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The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede;" (''Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd'', 1691.) |
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''Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson'' was published in 1723 in England and was presumed to be a novel by some modern scholars. The 1749 edition of [[John Cleland]]'s popular novel ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, ''Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified'', written by [[Thomas Cannon]], was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."<ref>Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) ''In Search of Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon's 'Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified"'', Institute of Historical Research </ref> Around 1785 [[Jeremy Bentham]] wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.<ref> Journal of Homosexuality (ISSN 0091-8369) Volume: 3 Issue: 4 , Volume: 4 Issue: 1 </ref> Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835. |
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Between 1864 and 1880 [[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs]] published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled ''Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love.'' In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws. |
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Sir [[Richard Francis Burton]]'s ''Terminal Essay, Part IV/D'' appendix in his translation of ''The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night'' (1885–86) provided an effusive overview of homosexuality in the Middle East and tropics. ''Sexual Inversion'' by [[Havelock Ellis]], published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Appendix A included ''A Problem in Greek Ethics'' by [[John Addington Symonds]], which had been privately distributed in 1883. Beginning in 1894 with ''Homogenic Love'', Socialist activist and poet [[Edward Carpenter]] wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book ''My Days and Dreams''. |
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In 1900, [[Elisar von Kupffer]] published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, ''[[Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur]]''. His aim was to broaden the public perspective of homosexuality beyond it being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. |
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=== Middle East, South and Central Asia === |
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{{Refimprovesect|date=June 2008}} |
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[[Image:Samarkand A group of musicians playing for a bacha dancing boy.jpg|thumb|''Dance of a [[bacchá]] (dancing boy)''<br /> [[Samarkand]], (ca 1905 - 1915), photo [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii]]. [[Library of Congress]], Washington, DC.]] |
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{{Further|[[Homosexuality and Islam]]}} |
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Among many [[Middle East]]ern Muslim cultures egalitarian or age-structured homosexual practices were, and remain, widespread and thinly veiled. The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were—and are—either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modeled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare. Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran, [[Mauritania]], northern [[Nigeria]], [[Sudan]], and [[Yemen]]. <ref>[http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50 ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts] </ref> |
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A tradition of art and literature sprang up constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality. Muslim—often [[Sufi]]—poets in medieval [[Arab]] lands and in [[Iran|Persia]] wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who served them in the taverns. In many areas the practice survived into modern times, as documented by [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[André Gide]], and others. |
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In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early [[Safavids|Safavid]] era (1501–1723), male houses of prostitution (''amrad khane'') were legally recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, such as [[Saadi|Sa’di]] (d. 1291), [[Hafez]] (d. 1389), and [[Jami]] (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with [[transgender]] young males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the [[köçek]]s and the [[bacchá]]s, and [[Sufi]] spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god. Some crossed over from the idealized chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. |
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In the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking areas, one manifestation of this same-sex love was the [[bacchá]], adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. |
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Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], during his famous 2007 [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad#U.S. Visit and speech at Columbia University|speech at Columbia University]], asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people do live in Iran, but most keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nazila|last=Fathi|title=Despite Denials, Gays Insist They Exist, if Quietly, in Iran|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/30/world/middleeast/30gays.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin|publisher=New York Times|date=2007-09-30|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref> |
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=== South Pacific === |
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In many societies of [[Melanesia]], especially in [[Papua New Guinea]], same-sex relationships were, until the middle of the last century, an integral part of the culture. The [[Etoro]] and [[Marind-anim]] for example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a pre-pubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of [[Christianity]] by [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[missionaries]].<ref name="melanesia">{{citation |title=Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia |first=Gilbert H. |last=Herdt |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520080963 |page=128-136}}</ref> |
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== Demographics == |
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{{main|Demographics of sexual orientation}} |
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Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents a number of difficulties: |
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* Survey data regarding stigmatized or deeply personal feelings or activities are often inaccurate. Participants often avoid answers which they feel society, the survey-takers, or they themselves dislike.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} |
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* The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The class of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the class of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the class of people who self-identify as gay/lesbian/bisexual.<ref name = "black"/> |
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* In studies measuring sexual activity, respondents may have different ideas about what constitutes a "sexual act."{{Fact|date=June 2008}} |
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Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population is of value in informing public policy.<ref name="black">"Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources", Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139-154 (available on JSTOR).</ref> For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of [[domestic partnership benefits]], of the impact of legalizing [[gay adoption]], and of the impact of the U.S. military's [[Don't Ask Don't Tell]] policy.<ref name="black" /> Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."<ref name="black" /> |
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Estimates of the incidence of exclusive homosexuality range from >1% to 10% of the population, usually finding there are slightly more gay men than lesbians.<ref>S. Hite, The Hite Report on Male Sexuality, New York, A. Knopf, 1991.</ref><ref>S. S. et C. L. Janus, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.</ref><ref name="kinseymale">Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', 1948, ISBN 0-7216-5445-2(o.p.), ISBN 0-253-33412-8(reprint).</ref> |
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Estimates also vary from one country to another. A 1992 study reported that 6.1% of males in Britain had a homosexual experience, while in France that number was 4.1%.<ref>TERESA L. WAITE, |
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December 8, 1992 "Sexual Behavior Levels Compared in Studies In Britain and France" in the ''New York Times''[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE0D91E3EF93BA35751C1A964958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all]</ref> |
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== Law, politics, and society == |
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{{Further|[[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality]]}} |
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=== Prejudice === |
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{{Further|[[Homophobia]], [[Heterosexism]], [[LGBT stereotypes]]}} |
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In many cultures, homosexual people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. Like many other minority groups that are the objects of prejudice, they are also subject to [[stereotypes|stereotyping]]. Gay men are seen as effeminate and fashionable, often identified with a [[gay lisp|lisp]] or a female-like tone and lilt.<ref name=xtra>{{cite news |title=Dunk the faggot: A gay radio voice, back from hell |first=Ian |last=Mackenzie |work=[[Xtra!]] |date=[[2004-03-18]] |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref><ref name=stuever>{{cite news |title=Dishy Delight: Steven Cojocaru, a Glamour Boy in TV's Post-Gay Embrace|url=http://www.hankstuever.com/cojocaru.html |date=[[2003-04-19]] |last=Stuever |first=Hank |work=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name=sfchronicle1>{{cite news |title=Gay couples can be as stable as straights, evidence suggests |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/27/MNG1H59R5Q1.DTL |first=Rona |last=Marech |date=[[2004-02-27]] |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref> They are stereotyped as being [[promiscuous]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and unsuccessful in developing enduring romantic relationships{{Fact|date=April 2008}}, despite research to the contrary.<ref name="jayyoung1997">{{cite book |last=Jay |first=Karla |authorlink= |coauthors=Young, Allen |title=The gay report: Lesbians and gay men speak out about sexual experiences and lifestyles |year=1979 |publisher=Summit |location=New York |isbn=0671400134 }}</ref> Gay men are also often alleged as having pedophilic tendencies and more likely to commit child sexual abuse than the heterosexual male population, a view rejected by mainstream psychiatric groups and contradicted by research.<ref name=sfchronicle2>{{cite news |last=Buchanan |first=Wyatt |date=[[2006-10-07]] |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/07/MNG9HLKTVH1.DTL |title=Foley incident stirs up a stereotype about gay men |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Marshall WL, Barbaree HE, Butt J |title=Sexual offenders against male children: sexual preferences |journal=Behav Res Ther |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=383–91 |year=1988 |pmid=3190647 |doi=10.1016/0005-7967(88)90071-X}}</ref><ref>[[Kurt Freund|Freund]] et al. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. ''Journal of Sex Research, 26,'' 107-117.</ref> Claims that there is scientific evidence to support an association between being gay and being a pedophile are based on misuses of those terms and misrepresentation of the actual evidence.<ref name=Cantor2002>http://individual.utoronto.ca/james_cantor/index_files/blog1.htm</ref> Lesbians are seen as [[butch]], and sometimes "man-haters"<ref name=crimevictimservices>{{cite web |url=http://www.crimevictimservices.org/victimtypes/gaylesbian.php |title=Facts About Gay and Lesbian Victims |work=Crime Victim Services |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref> or [[radical feminists]].<ref name=fathersforlife>{{cite web |title=Feminism? You want feminism? |url=http://fathersforlife.org/feminism/feminism_terms_defined.htm#Lesbianism |work=FathersForLife.org |accessdate=2007-04-07}}</ref> |
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Homosexuality has at times been used as a [[scapegoat]] by governments facing problems. For example, during the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behavior were instrumental in disbanding the [[Knights Templar]] under [[Philip IV of France]], who profited greatly from confiscating the Templars' wealth. In the 20th century, [[Nazi Germany]]'s [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|persecution of homosexual people]] was based on the proposition that they posed a threat to "normal" masculinity as well as a risk of contamination to the "[[Aryan race]]". |
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In the 1950s, at the height of the [[Red Scare]] in the United States, hundreds of federal and state employees were fired because of their homosexuality in the so-called [[Lavender Scare]]. (Ironically, politicians opposed to the scare tactics of [[McCarthyism]] tried to discredit Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] by hinting during a televised Congressional committee meeting that McCarthy's top aide, [[Roy Cohn]], was homosexual, as he in fact was.) |
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A recent instance of scapegoating is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet [[Abu Nuwas]] by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]].<ref>''Al-Hayat'', January 13, 2001</ref><ref>''Middle East Report'', 219 Summer 2001</ref> |
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=== Violence against gay and lesbian people === |
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{{main|Violence against LGBT people}} |
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In the United States, the [[FBI]] reported that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. Sixty-one percent of these attacks were against gay men.<ref name="fbicrime">{{citation |title=Crime in the United States 2004: Hate Crime |url=http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html |periodical=[[FBI]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The 1998 murder of [[Matthew Shepard]], a gay student, is one of the most notorious incidents in the U.S. |
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Homosexual acts are punishable by death in some present-day countries including [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Nigeria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sudan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Yemen]].<ref name="ilga">{{citation |last=Ottosson |first=Daniel |title=LGBT world legal wrap up survey |publisher=[[ILGA]] |date=November, 2006 |accessdate=[[2007-09-21]] |url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/World_legal_wrap_up_survey_November2006.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> |
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=== Legality === |
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{{see|Sodomy law|Homosexuality laws of the world|List of LGBT rights by region}} |
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[[Image:Queer liberation banners, Philadelphia 1972.jpg|thumb|[[Homophile]] banner, 1972. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States]] |
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[[Image:Seattle gay parade-protesters.jpg|thumb|Anti-homosexuality Christian protesters at a [[gay pride parade]], 2007. Seattle, Washington, United States.]] |
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Homosexual acts were illegal in most countries until the [[interwar period]]. There was a limited number of decriminalizations in the [[Western world]] during the 1930s to 1950s, in [[Gay rights in Denmark|Denmark]] in 1933, in [[Gay rights in Sweden|Sweden]] in 1944, but widespread legalization of homosexuality only began to develop from the [[1960s]], in the [[Gay rights in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] in 1967, and in [[Gay rights in Canada|Canada]] in 1969. In the mid-1970s that the [[gay community]] first began to achieve actual, though limited, [[civil rights]] in some [[developed countries]].{{dubious}} A turning point was reached in 1973 when the [[American Psychiatric Association]] removed homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], thus negating its previous definition of homosexuality as a clinical [[mental disorder]]. In 1977, [[Quebec]] became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit [[discrimination]] on the grounds of [[sexual orientation]]. |
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During the 1980s and 1990s, most [[developed countries]] enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbians and gays in employment, housing, and services. |
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===Political activism=== |
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{{see|LGBT social movements}} |
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Since the 1960s, many [[LGBT]] people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called [[Queer culture|gay culture]]. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the [[gay pride]] movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents [[heterophobia]] and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people. |
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With the outbreak of [[AIDS]] in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs. [[Gay Men's Health Crisis]], Project Inform, and [[ACT UP]] are some notable American examples of the LGBT community's response to the AIDS crisis. |
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The bewildering death toll wrought by the [[AIDS]] epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the [[gay rights]] movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include ''[[An Early Frost]]'' (1985), ''[[Longtime Companion]]'' (1990), ''[[And the Band Played On]]'' (1993), ''[[Philadelphia]]'' (1993), and ''[[Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt]]'' (1989), the last referring to the [[NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt]], last displayed in its entirety on [[National Mall|the Mall]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], in 1996. |
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Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had [[sodomy law]]s or outright [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|mass murder of gays]] in their recent past. |
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Gay British politicians include former UK [[Cabinet|Cabinet ministers]] [[Chris Smith, Baron Smith of Finsbury|Chris Smith]] (now Lord Smith of [[Finsbury]] who is also a rare example of an openly [[HIV]] positive statesman) and [[Nick Brown]], and, most famously, [[Peter Mandelson]], a [[European Commission]]er and close friend of [[Tony Blair]]. Openly gay [[Per-Kristian Foss]] was the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Minister of Finance]] until September 2005. |
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LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations. Supporters of the [[traditional marriage movement]] believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermines the traditional family<ref>[http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1312e636369f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD First Presidency Message on Same-Gender Marriage]</ref> and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.<ref name = DMD> |
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{{cite web |
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|last=Brownback |
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|first=Sam |
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|title=Defining Marriage Down - We need to protect marriage. |
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|publisher=[[National Review]] |
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|date=July 9, 2004 |
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|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/brownback200407090921.asp }} |
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</ref><ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=e1fa5f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1aba862384d20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 ''The Family: A Proclamation to the World'']</ref> |
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There is also concern that gay rights may conflict with individual's freedom of speech,<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=496871&in_page_id=1770 |
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|title=Gay hate law 'threat to Christian free speech' |
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|date=November 28, 2007 |
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|first=Steve |
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|last=Doughty |
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|publisher=Daily Mail}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=403815&in_page_id=1770 |
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|title=Christian faces court over 'offensive' gay festival leaflets |
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|first=Steve |
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|last=Doughty |
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|date=September 6, 2006 |
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|publisher=Daily Mail}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/michael_gove/article805241.ece |
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|publisher=The Times |
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|title=I'd like to say this, but it might land me in prison |
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|date=December 24, 2002 |
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|first=Michael |
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|last=Gove}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/calgary/story/2007/11/28/chandler-meeting.html |
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|title=Christian group likens Tory candidate review to witch hunt |
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|date=November 28, 2007 |
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|publisher=CBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/opinion/story.html?id=431535&p=2 |
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|title=Conduct unbecoming a free society |
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|date=April 9, 2008 |
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|last=Kempling |
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|first=Chris |
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|publisher=National Post}}</ref> religious freedoms in the workplace,<ref> {{cite news |
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|url=http://www.law.com/jsp/ihc/PubArticleIHC.jsp?id=1193735028038 |
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|title=Employer's Dilemma: When Religious Expression and Gay Rights Cross |
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|first=Judith |
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|last=Moldover |
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|publisher=New York Law Journal |
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|date=October 31, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_1_68/ai_n24944645 |
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|title=Collision of religious and gay rights in the workplace |
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|publisher=Humanist |
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|date=January-February, 2008 |
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|first=Bob |
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|last=Ritter}}</ref> the ability to run churches,<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6904057.stm |
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|title=Bishop loses gay employment case |
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|date=July 18, 2007 |
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|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> charitable organizations<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2080669/Catholic-adoption-service-stops-over-gay-rights.html |
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|title=Catholic adoption service stops over gay rights |
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|date=June 5 ,2008 |
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|publisher=Telegraph |
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|first=Martin |
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|last=Beckford}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2006/03/10/catholic_charities_to_halt_adoptions_over_issue_involving_gays/ |
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|title=Catholic Charities to halt adoptions over issue involving gays |
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|date=March 10, 2006 |
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|last=LeBlanc |
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|first=Steve |
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|publisher=[[Boston Globe]]}}</ref> and other religious organizations<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://news.therecord.com/News/CanadaWorld/article/341201 |
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|date=April 24, 2008 |
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|first=Greg |
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|last=Mercer |
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|publisher=The Record |
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|title=Christian Horizons rebuked: Employer ordered to compensate fired gay worker, abolish code of conduct |
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}}</ref> in accordance with one's religious views. There is also concern that the acceptance of homosexual relationships by religious organizations might be forced through threatening to remove the tax-exempt status of churches whose views don't align with those of the government.<ref name=BannedBoston>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/191kgwgh.asp |
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|title=Banned in Boston:The coming conflict between same-sex marriage and religious liberty |
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|first=Maggie |
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|last=Gallagher |
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|date=2006-05-15 |
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|volume=011 |
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|issue=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/14/nyregion/14civil.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |
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|date=August 14, 2007 |
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|title=Church Group Complains of Civil Union Pressure |
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|first=Jill |
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|last=Capuzzo |
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|publisher=New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/18/nyregion/18grove.html |
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|title=Group Loses Tax Break Over Gay Union Issue |
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|first=Jill |
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|last=Capuzzo |
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|publisher=New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,700226242,00.html |
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|title=LDS Church expresses disappointment in California gay marriage decision |
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|date=May 15, 2008 |
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|first=Carrie |
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|last=Moore |
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|publisher=[[Deseret News]]}} |
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</ref> |
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Critics charge that political correctness has led to the association of sex between males and HIV being downplayed.<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.netassets.co.za/medical/medical.asp?websiteContentItemID=67274 |
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|first=James |
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|last=Chin |
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|title=The risks in hiding the HIV/AIDS truth |
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|publisher=Business Day |
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|date=March 12, 2007 |
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|volume=9 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-347665/The-people-punish-Mr-Blair.html |
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|title=The people punish Mr Blair |
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|publisher=Daily Mail (UK) |
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|date=May 6, 2005}}</ref> |
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=== Coming out === |
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{{main|Coming out}} |
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<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Montclair Graffiti.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Graffiti expressing sexual orientation.]] --> |
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Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called "coming out" at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation until age 40 or older. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person.<ref name="hrccontinuum">{{citation |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |url=http://dev.hrc.org/issues/3333.htm |periodical=[[Human Rights Campaign]] |title=The Coming Out Continuum}}</ref> In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own parents are not even informed. |
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[[Outing]] is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.<ref name="glbtqouting">{{citation |last=Neumann |first=Caryn E |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/outing.html |title=Outing |year=2004 |periodical=[[glbtq.com]]}}</ref> Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,<ref name="biasfreeusage">{{citation |title=The Dictionary of Bias-Free Usage: A Guide to Nondiscriminatory Language |last=Maggio |first=Rosalie |year=1991 |publisher=Oryx Press |isbn=0897746538 |page=208}}</ref> while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.<ref name="statesmanouting">{{citation |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200704230064 |title=Outing hypocrites is justified |first=Peter |last=Tatchell |date=[[2007-04-23]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |periodical=[[The New Statesman]]}}</ref> |
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=== Parenting === |
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{{main|LGBT parenting}} |
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{{Unbalanced}} |
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Many LGB people are parents through various means including adoption, donor insemination, foster parenting, surrogacy, from former relationships and together with an opposite sex spouse in a [[mixed-orientation marriage]].<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8505530?ordinalpos=86&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Gay fathers in straight marriages]</ref><ref>{{cite book |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yffzsKWvP6AC&oi=fnd&pg=PA138&ots=8RVKJpMsQh&sig=cV1xTjj9Is2BYObvw7DLb4bd7fw#PPA138,M1 |
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|title=Gay and Lesbian Parents |
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|first=Frederick W. |
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|last=Bozett |
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|chapter=The Heterosexually Married Gay and Lesbian Parent |
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|page=138}}</ref><ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=82829 The Married Lesbian]</ref><ref name=Brokeback>{{cite news |
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|title=Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages |
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|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/health/07broke.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin |
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|last=Butler |
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|first=Katy |
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|date=March 7, 2006 |
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|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Some children do not know they have a LGB parent.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3655343?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=5&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed Helping gay fathers come out to their children]</ref><ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=55278 A Family Matter: When a Spouse Comes Out as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual]</ref> |
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In the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 U.S. Census]], 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home.<ref name="apa">[http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/policy/parents.html APA Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents & Children], [[American Psychological Association]], July 28 & 30, 2004. Retrieved on [[2007-04-06]].</ref> In January 2008, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that same-sex couples have the right to [[LGBT adoption|adopt]] a child.<ref>[http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=43546/02&sessionid=4859311&skin=hudoc-en EMRK is for the LGBT adoption]</ref><ref>[http://www.euronews.net/index.php?page=info&article=466057&lng=3 Euronews: Gleichgeschlechtliche Adoptiveltern - Gerichtshof rügt Frankreich (german)]</ref> In the U.S., LGB people can legally adopt in all states except for Florida.<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/parenting/adoptions/2375.htm |
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|title=Adoption Laws: State by State |
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|publisher=Human Rights Campaign |
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|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref> |
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Same-sex parents are supported by the positions of a number of organizations, including the [[American Psychological Association]], the Child Welfare League of America, the [[American Bar Association]], the [[American Psychiatric Association]], the [[National Association of Social Workers]], the North American Council on Adoptable Children, the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]], the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]], and the [[American Academy of Family Physicians]].<ref name="profviewparenting">{{citation |title=Professional Organizations on GLBT Parenting |url=http://www.hrc.org/issues/parenting/professional-opinion.asp |publisher=[[Human Rights Campaign|HRC]].org |accessdate=[[2007-09-01]]}}</ref> |
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The [[American Psychological Association]] has stated that: |
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<blockquote>there is no scientific evidence that parenting effectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children…research has shown that the adjustment, development, and psychological well-being of children is unrelated to parental sexual orientation and that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as likely as those of heterosexual parents to flourish….<ref name="apa" /></blockquote> |
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''Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types'', a major report prepared by the [[Department of Justice (Canada)]] in July 2006 but not released by the government until forced to do so by a request under the [[Access to Information Act]] in May 2007,<ref name='ssmc050907'>{{cite news |first=Bourassa |last=Kevin |coauthors=Joe Varnell |title=Harper shoves family study into the closet |date=2007-05-09 |publisher=equalmarriage.ca |url=http://www.samesexmarriage.ca/advocacy/PDH090507.htm |work=Equal Marriage for Same-sex Couples: Advocacy News |pages= |accessdate=2007-07-30 |language=}}</ref> reaches this conclusion: |
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<blockquote>The strongest conclusion that can be drawn from the empirical literature is that the vast majority of studies show that children living with two mothers and children living with a mother and father have the same levels of social competence. A few studies suggest that children with two lesbian mothers may have marginally better social competence than children in traditional nuclear families, even fewer studies show the opposite, and most studies fail to find any differences. The very limited body of research on children with two gay fathers supports this same conclusion.<ref name='gayparents0606'>{{cite news |first= |last= |coauthors= |title=Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types |date=July 2006 |publisher=Department of Justice Canada |url=http://www.samesexmarriage.ca/docs/Justice_Child_Development.pdf |work= |pages=(Long PDF document, 7.7 Mb) |accessdate=2007-07-30 |language= |format=PDF}}</ref></blockquote> |
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=== Corporate attitudes === |
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In some [[capitalism|capitalist]] countries, large [[private sector]] [[corporation|firms]] often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, more than half of the [[Fortune 500]] offer [[domestic partnership]] benefits and 49 of the Fortune 50 companies include [[sexual orientation]] in their non-discrimination policies (only [[ExxonMobil]] does not).<ref name="fortune500-sfgate">DeBare, Illana. "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/06/30/BUGJNJMQ9C1.DTL Gay, lesbian workers gradually gain benefits]." ''San Francisco Chronicle''. June 30, 2006. Accessed April 13, 2007.</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Workplace Improves for Gay, Transgender Employees, Rights Group Says |first=Amy |last=Joyce |periodical=[[The Washington Post]] |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/05/AR2005060501249.html |date=[[2006-06-06]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-21]]}}</ref> |
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=== Mental health === |
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Stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality leads to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals compared to their heterosexual peers.<ref>{{cite journal |
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|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2072932 |
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|title=Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations: Conceptual Issues and Research Evidence |
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|first=Ilan H. |
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|last=Meyer |
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|month=September | year=2003 |
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|publisher=Psychological Bulletin |
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|volume=129 |
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|number=5 |
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|pages=674–697}}</ref> However, evidence indicates that the liberalization of these attitudes over the past few decades is associated with a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-10/cums-bgm100207.php Black gay men, lesbians, have fewer mental disorders than whites, says Mailman School of PH study<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> |
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=== Gay and lesbian youth === |
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Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers".<ref name="dhhs">{{citation |title=Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide |editor-first=Marcia R. (ed.) |editor-last= Fenleib |year=1989 |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |isbn=0160025087 |last=Gibson |first=P. |contribution=Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide}}</ref> |
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LGB youths are more likely to report psychological and physical abuse by parents or caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their perceived sexual orientation or gender non-conforming appearance, and (2) "risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members... may lead to an increase in behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from home as a teenager."<ref>{{cite journal |
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|url=http://www.apa.org/journals/features/ccp733477.pdf |
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|title=Victimization Over the Life Span: A Comparison of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Siblings |
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|first=Kimberly F. |
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|last=Balsam |
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|coauthors=Esther D. Rothblum |
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|month=June | year=2005 |
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|publisher=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |
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|volume=73 |
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|number=3 |
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|pages=477–487|format=PDF}}</ref> |
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Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults.<ref name="suicideorg">{{citation |title=Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Suicide|url=http://www.suicide.org/gay-and-lesbian-suicide.html |first=Kevin |last=Caruso |periodical=Suicide.org |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> [[The Trevor Helpline]], a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the [[Academy Award]] winning short film ''[[Trevor (film)|Trevor]]''. |
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== Military service == |
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{{Main|Sexual orientation and military service}} |
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Some [[Ancient history|ancient]] and pre-modern societies, such as [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[History of Japan|Japan]], fostered erotic love bonds between experienced warriors and their apprentices. It was believed that a man and youth who were in love with each other would fight harder and with greater [[morale]]. A classic example of a military force built upon this belief is the [[Sacred Band of Thebes]]. |
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The adoption of [[Christianity]] by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] in the [[4th century|fourth century]] and subsequent predominance of Christianity led to a diminished emphasis on erotic love among military forces. By the time of the [[Crusades]], the military of Europe had largely switched gears, asserting that carnal relations between males were sinful and therefore had no place in an army that served their perception of [[God]]'s will. The [[Knights Templar]], a prominent military order, was destroyed by accusations (probably fabricated) of [[sodomy]]. |
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The United Kingdom, Canada, the [[Netherlands]], and [[Israel]] admit openly gay service members, and others—like the United States, and many nations in South America and the [[Caribbean]]—either quiet or discharge anyone found to be engaging in homosexual relations or openly identifying as gay; the United States is known for its 1993 "[[don't ask, don't tell]]" policy. The traditional justification for excluding openly gay service members is that it may lead to "harassment, discord, blackmail, bullying or an erosion of unit cohesion or military effectiveness".<ref name="nyt2007">{{citation |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/21/world/europe/21britain.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |periodical=[[The New York Times]] |title=Gay Britons Serve in Military With Little Fuss, as Predicted Discord Does Not Occur |date=[[2007-05-21]] |first=Sarah |last=Lyall |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]]}}</ref> The British military, which removed their restriction against gay service members in 2000, has not experienced any of these feared results.<ref name="nyt2007"/> |
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== Religion == |
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{{main|Religion and homosexuality}} |
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Religions have had differing views about love and sexual relations between people of the same sex. |
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Presently, a large proportion of the Abrahamic sects view sexual relationships outside of a heterosexual marriage, including homosexual sex, negatively, though there are groups within each faith that disagree with orthodox positions and challenge their doctrinal authority.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} Opposition to homosexual behavior ranges from quietly discouraging displays and activities to those who explicitly forbid same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively oppose social acceptance of homosexual relationships. Support of homosexual behavior is reflected in the acceptance of sexually heterodox individuals in all functions of the church, and sanctification of same-sex unions.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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Some gay men, lesbians and bisexuals seek to diminish [[same-sex attraction]]s, avoid [[same-sex relationship]]s, or change [[sexual orientation]]. Some attempted methods include [[conversion therapy]], religious practice, or attendance in [[ex-gay]] groups (such as [[Exodus International]]). Many Western health and mental health professional organizations believe sexual orientation develops across a person’s lifetime<ref name="Psych">{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.aglp.org/pages/cfactsheets.html#Anchor-Gay-14210 |
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|title=Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues |
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|author=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |
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|publisher=Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrics |
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|month=May | year=2000}}</ref> and they respect a person’s right to self-determination.<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.html#whatabout |
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|title=What about therapy intended to change sexual orientation from gay to straight? |
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|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |
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|year=2008}}</ref> However, neither the effectiveness nor the harm of conversion therapies have been rigorously and scientifically proven,<ref>{{cite web |
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|url = http://archive.psych.org/edu/other_res/lib_archives/archives/200001.pdf |
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|title = Position Statement on Therapies Focused on Attempts to Change Sexual Orientation (Reparative or Conversion Therapies) |
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|accessdate = 2007-08-28 |
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|year = 2000 |
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|month = May |
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|publisher = American Psychiatric Association |
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|format=PDF}}</ref> and many Western health and mental health professional organizations recommend that therapists refrain from attempts to change individuals' sexual orientation, given concerns of potential harm caused by such attempts.<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.pdf |
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|title=JUST THE FACTS ABOUT Sexual Orientation and Youth |
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|author=[[American Psychiatric Association]] |
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|publisher=The Just the Facts Coalition |
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|year=2008|format=PDF}}</ref> The promotion of ex-gay groups and conversion therapy in schools has led to controversy, but has been allowed by American courts.<ref>{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.nbc4.com/news/10296097/detail.html |
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|title=Flier About 'Ex-Gays' Ignites Firestorm At School |
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|date=November 11, 2006 |
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|publisher=NBC}}</ref> |
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Several churches teach love and compassion towards gay people, regardless of their sexual practices, while still teaching against homosexual relationships.<ref name=Oakland>{{cite news |
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|title=Mormon church changes stance on homosexuality |
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|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20070820/ai_n19473724 |
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|last=Lum |
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|first=Rebecca Rosen |
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|publisher=[[Oakland Tribune]] |
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|date=[[2007-08-20]]}}</ref> The Catechism of the Catholic Church states gay people "must be accepted with respect, compassion and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided."<ref>[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a6.htm#2357 Catechism of the Catholic Church, para. 2357 Catholic Church]</ref> The [[LDS Church]] denounced gay-bashing<ref> [http://lds.org/portal/site/LDSOrg/menuitem.b12f9d18fae655bb69095bd3e44916a0/?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=43786e9ce9b1c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1''1995 Dallin H. Oaks Statement''], Official Site of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Retrieved on September 27, 2007.</ref> and has officially stated that its members "reach out with understanding and respect".<ref>{{Citation |
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|last1=Hinckley |
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|first1=Gordon B. |
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|author1-link=Gordon B. Hinckley |
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|last2=Monson |
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|first2=Thomas S. |
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|author2-link=Thomas S. Monson |
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|last3=Faust |
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|first3=James E. |
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|author3-link=James E. Faust |
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|title=First Presidency Statement on Same-Gender Marriage |
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|publisher=LDS Church |
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|place=Salt Lake City, Utah |
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|date=October 20, 2004 |
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|year=2004 |
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|url=http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1312e636369f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD |
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}}</ref> |
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Other churches have changed their doctrine to accommodate homosexual relationships. [[Reform Judaism]], the largest branch of [[Judaism]] outside [[Israel]], has begun to facilitate religious [[same-sex marriages]] for gay adherents in their synagogues. [[Jewish Theological Seminary]], considered to be the flagship institution of [[Conservative Judaism]], decided in March 2007 to begin accepting applicants in homosexual relationships, after scholars who guide the movement lifted the ban on ordaining people in homosexual relationships.<ref name="jewishseminary">{{citation |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/03/27/national/main2611436.shtml |title=Conservative Jewish Seminary To Allow Gays |date=[[2007-03-27]] |accessdate=[[2007-05-04]] |periodical=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> In 2005, the [[United Church of Christ]] became the largest Christian denomination in the United States to formally endorse same-sex marriage.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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On the other hand, the [[Anglican Communion]] encountered discord that caused a rift between the African (except Southern Africa) and Asian Anglican churches on the one hand and North American churches on the other, when American and Canadian churches openly ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions. Other churches such as the [[Methodist Church]] had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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Some religious groups have even promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community. In early 2005, the [[American Family Association]] threatened a boycott of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the [[gay agenda|homosexual agenda]] and homosexual marriage".<ref>"[http://find.galegroup.com/ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A133003422&source=gale&srcprod=GRGM&userGroupName=va0053_remote&version=1.0 Family group to boycott Ford for its gay support.](American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article)." ''PR Week (US)'' (June 6, 2005): 02. ''General Reference Center Gold''. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 Apr. 2007.</ref> |
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== Forms of relationships == |
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People with a homosexual orientation can express their sexuality in a variety of ways, and may or may not express it in their [[sexual behavior|behaviors]].<ref name=APAHelp>[http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31 APA Help Center]</ref> Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want and have committed relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and 80% of lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship.<ref name=WhatIsNature>[http://www.apa.org/topics/sorientation.html#whatisnature What is Nature]</ref> They can have sexual relationships predominately with people of their own gender, the opposite gender, both genders or they can be [[celibate]].<ref name=APAHelp /> |
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=== Same-sex relationships === |
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{{main|Same-sex relationship}} |
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Studies have found same-sex and opposite-sex couples to be equivalent to each other on measures of relationship satisfaction and commitment. Many lesbians and gay men form durable relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived together 10 or more years.<ref name=WhatIsNature /> The types of relationships vary by region and what is permitted by law. |
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Scholars who study the social construction of homosexuality investigate the various forms that same-sex relationships have taken in different societies, and look for patterns as well as differences. Their work suggests that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as "homosexualities". Anthropologists group these socio-historical variations into three separate categories:<ref name="chicagoseries">{{cite book|title=Homosexualities |series=Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture |last=Murray |first=Stephen |authorlink=Stephen O. Murray |editor=[[Gilbert Herdt]] (ed.) |year=2002 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location= |isbn=0226551946 |pages=p.2 }}</ref><ref name="queeringanthro">{{citation |contribution=Queering Anthropology |editor-first=Theo |editor-last=Sandfort (ed.) |title=Lesbian and Gay Studies: An Introductory, Interdisciplinary Approach |publication-place=London/NY |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |isbn=076195418X}}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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!Association |
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!Annotations |
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!See also |
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|- |
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|Egalitarian |
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|Features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially accepted sex role as [[heterosexuality|heterosexuals]] of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in Western society between partners of similar age and sex. |
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|[[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures]] |
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|- |
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|Gender-structured |
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|Features each partner playing a different [[gender role]]. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]], as well as [[Two-Spirit]] or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. In North America, this is best represented by the [[butch and femme|butch–femme]] practice. |
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|[[Homosexuality and Islam]], [[Two-Spirit]], and [[Hijra (South Asia)|Hijra]] |
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|- |
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|Age-structured |
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|Features partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This is exemplified by [[pederasty]] among the [[Hellenic civilization|Classical Greeks]] or those engaged in by novice [[samurai]] with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. |
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|[[Shudo]], [[Pederasty]], [[Historical pederastic couples]], and [[Homosexuality in China]] |
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|} |
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Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian [[Rictor Norton]] points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm ''Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,''] in ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of [[pederasty]], and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian homosexuality is the principal form present in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are less common. As a byproduct of growing Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from Western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures. |
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=== Opposite sex relationships === |
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Many homosexual people have sexual relationships with someone of the opposite sex.<ref name=Brokeback /><ref>{{cite news |
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|title=How to tell if your husband is gay |
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|first=Rochelle |
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|last=Hentges |
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|publisher=[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]] |
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|date=October 4, 2006 |
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|url=http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/tribpm/s_473458.html}}</ref> Reasons can include discrimination, wishful thinking, real affection, sexual love,<ref name=Brokeback>{{cite news |
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|title=Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages |
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|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/health/07broke.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin |
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|last=Butler |
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|first=Katy |
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|date=March 7, 2006 |
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|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> desire for family,<ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=11230 Gay Men from Heterosexual Marriages: Attitudes, Behaviors, Childhood Experiences, and Reasons for Marriage]</ref> as well as religious reasons.<ref>[http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon336.html Gay, Mormon, married]</ref><ref>[http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990301-000030.html Gay No More]</ref> Many homosexual people and their opposite sex partner enter into a [[mixed-orientation marriage]].<ref >[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8505530?ordinalpos=86&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Gay Fathers in a Straight Marriage]</ref><ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=82829 The Married Lesbian]</ref> While many hide their orientation from their spouse,<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2794500?ordinalpos=7&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Heterosexual women's perceptions of their marriages to bisexual or homosexual men.]</ref> others develop a positive homosexual identity while maintaining a successful marriage.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7346553?ordinalpos=32&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Bisexual and gay men in heterosexual marriage: conflicts and resolutions in therapy.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4056386?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=3&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed Bisexual men in marriage: is a positive homosexual identity and stable marriage possible?]</ref> |
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== Homosexual behavior in animals == |
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{{Further|[[Homosexual behavior in animals]], [[List of animals displaying homosexual behavior]]}} |
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Homosexual sexual behavior occurs in the [[animal]] kingdom, especially in social species, particularly in marine birds and mammals, monkeys, and the [[Hominidae|great apes]]. Homosexual behavior has been observed among 1,500 species, and in 500 of those it is well documented.<ref name="oslogayanimals">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6066606.stm Oslo gay animal show draws crowds], [[BBC News]], [[2006-10-19]]. Retrieved [[2006-10-19]]</ref><ref name="The Gay Animal Kingdom">[http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2006/06/the_gay_animal_kingdom.php?page=all&p=y>]</ref>. This discovery constitutes a major argument against those calling into question the biological legitimacy or naturalness of homosexuality, or those regarding it as a meditated social decision. For example, male [[penguin]] couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a [[surrogate]] egg in nesting and brooding. In a well-publicized story from 2004, the [[Central Park Zoo]] in the United States replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring.<ref name="sfpenguins">Smith, Datitia. ([[2004-02-07]]). "[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate]". ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. Retrieved on [[2007-09-08]].</ref> |
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The genetic basis of animal homosexuality has been studied in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''.<ref name="yamamoto3">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Nakano Y |title=Sexual behavior mutants revisited: molecular and cellular basis of Drosophila mating |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=56 |issue=7-8 |pages=634–46 |year=1999 |pmid=11212311 |doi=10.1007/s000180050458}}</ref> Here, multiple genes have been identified that can cause homosexual courtship and mating.<ref name=Yamamoto>{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Ito H, Fujitani K |title=Genetic dissection of sexual orientation: behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=Neurosci. Res. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=95–107 |year=1996 |pmid=8953572 |doi=10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01087-5}}</ref> These genes are thought to control behavior through [[pheromone]]s as well as altering the structure of the animal's brains.<ref name="ferveur">{{cite journal |author=Ferveur JF, Savarit F, O'Kane CJ, Sureau G, Greenspan RJ, Jallon JM |title=Genetic feminization of pheromones and its behavioral consequences in Drosophila males |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5318 |pages=1555–8 |year=1997 |pmid=9171057 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5318.1555}}</ref><ref name="yamamoto2">{{cite journal |author=Yamamoto D, Fujitani K, Usui K, Ito H, Nakano Y |title=From behavior to development: genes for sexual behavior define the neuronal sexual switch in Drosophila |journal=Mech. Dev. |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=135–46 |year=1998 |pmid=9622612 |doi=10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00042-2}}</ref> These studies have also investigated the influence of environment on the likelihood of flies displaying homosexual behavior.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal |author=Zhang SD, Odenwald WF |title=Misexpression of the white (w) gene triggers male-male courtship in Drosophila |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=92 |issue=12 |pages=5525–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7777542 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=7777542 |doi=10.1073/pnas.92.12.5525}}</ref><ref name="svetec">{{cite journal |author=Svetec N, Ferveur JF |title=Social experience and pheromonal perception can change male-male interactions in Drosophila melanogaster |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=208 |issue=Pt 5 |pages=891–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15755887 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/5/891 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01454}}</ref> |
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[[Georgetown University]] professor Janet Mann has specifically theorized that homosexual behavior, at least in [[dolphin]]s, is an evolutionary advantage that minimizes intraspecies aggression, especially among males.<ref name="janetmann">Mann, J. "Establishing Trust: Sociosexual behaviour and the development of male-male bonds among Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin calves." Homosexual Behaviour in Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective. Ed. P. Vasey and V. Sommer. : Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref> Studies indicating prenatal homosexuality in certain animal species have had social and political implications surrounding the gay rights debate.<ref name="seattle2002">{{citation |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002340883_gayscience19m.html |date=[[2005-06-19]] |title=Born gay? How biology may drive orientation |first=Sandi |last=Doughton |periodical=[[Seattle Times]] |accessdate=[[2007-09-08]]}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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{| |
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|valign="top"| |
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* [[Anti-LGBT slogans]] |
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* [[Gay bashing]] |
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* [[Hate speech]] |
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* [[Heterosexism]] |
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* [[Homophobia]] |
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* [[Human Rights Campaign]] |
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* [[LGBT rights opposition]] |
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* [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]] |
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|valign="top"| |
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* [[Mythology of same-sex love]] |
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* [[Non-westernized concepts of male sexuality]] |
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* [[Religion and sexuality]] |
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* [[Religion and homosexuality]] |
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* [[Romantic friendship]] |
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* [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures]] |
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* [[Sodomy law]] |
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* [[Same-sex couples]] |
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|} |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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== Bibliography == |
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<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> |
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<!-- author, title, publisher date, ISBN --> |
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=== Books === |
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* Kenneth J. Dover, ''Greek Homosexuality'', , Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1979, ISBN 0-674-36261-6 (hardcover), ISBN 0-674-36270-5 (paperback) |
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* John d'Emilio, ''Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970'', [[University of Chicago Press]] 1983, ISBN 0226142655 |
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* Norman Roth. ''The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry.'' IN: Lazar & Lacy. ''Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages'', George Mason University Press 1989, ISBN 0913969257 |
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<!-- 1990s --> |
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* Allan Bérubé, ''Coming out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two'', New York: MacMillan 1990, ISBN 0029031001 |
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* Bret Hinsch, ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China'', The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7 |
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* Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' New York and London, Garland Publishing 1990, ISBN 0824065441 |
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* Foucault, Michel, ''The History of Sexuality'' vol. 1: ''An Introduction'', p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage 1990 |
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* George Rousseau, ''Perilous Enlightenment: Pre- and Post-Modern Discourses--Sexual, Historical'', Manchester University Press 1991, ISBN 0719033012 |
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* Lillian Faderman, ''Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America'', Penguin 1992 |
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* Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies''. Haworth Press, 1992 |
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* George Chauncey, ''Gay New York: Gender Urban Culture and the Making of the Gay Male World'', New York: Basic Books, 1994 |
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* Juanita Ramos , ''Compañeras: Latina Lesbians : An Anthology'', Routledge 1994 |
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* Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A., (1994), ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence,'' Harrington Park Press |
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* Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0-316-07524-8 |
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* Percy, William A ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece.'' University of Illinois Press, 1996 |
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* Lester G. Brown, ''Two Spirit People'', 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4 |
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* Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-1287-3. |
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* Jennifer Terry, ''An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society'', University of Chicago Press 1999, ISBN 0-226-79367-2 |
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<!-- 2000s --> |
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* Bullough, Vern L. ''Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context,'' Harrington Park Press 2002 |
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* Ruth Vanita, ''Queering India: Same-Sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society'', Routledge 2002 |
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* Joanne Meyers, ''Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage'', Scarecrow Press 2003 |
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* David K. Johnson, ''The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004 |
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=== Journal articles === |
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* Bowman, Karl M.; Eagle, Bernice ''[http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=hearth;idno=4732756_885_001 The Problem of Homosexuality]'', Journal of Social Hygiene 1953 |
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* Norton, Rictor and Crew, Louis ''[http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html The Homophobic Imagination]'', College English 1974 |
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* Simon LeVay, ''A difference in hypothalamic structure between homosexual and heterosexual men'', Science Magazine 1991 |
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* Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, ''On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27'', [[Journal of Homosexuality]], Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18, 1998 |
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=== Online articles === |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/55169.stm BBC News (Feb 1998)]: Fingerprints Study |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/325979.stm BBC News (Apr 1999)]: Doubt cast on 'gay gene' |
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* [http://my.webmd.com/content/article/22/1728_56075?src=Inktomi&condition=Home%20&%20Top%20Stories WebMD (March 2000)]: Pointing the Finger at Androgen as a Cause of Homosexuality |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3735668.stm BBC News (Oct 2004)]: Genetics of homosexuality |
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* James Davidson, ''[[London Review of Books]]'', June 2, 2005, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/davi02_.html "Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs"] - detailed review of ''The Friend'', by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds |
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* [http://semgai.free.fr/doc_et_pdf/africa_A4.pdf Murray, Stephen; ''Homosexuality in traditional Sub-Saharan Africa''] |
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</div> |
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== External links == |
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{{sisterlinks|homosexuality}} |
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* [http://www.apa.org/topics/sbehaviorsub1.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality] The American Psychological Association |
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* [http://www.ohsu.edu/news/2004/030504sheep.html Biology behind homosexuality in sheep, study confirms] |
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* [http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/Publications/200412_Dalvi-study.pdf European Court of Human Rights Rulings Against Military Forces] |
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* [http://www.oneinstitute.org One National Gay & Lesbian Archives] |
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* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses] |
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* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/homosexuality/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Same-sex Orientation] |
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{{LGBT|history=yes|culture=yes|rights=yes}} |
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{{Sexual identities}} |
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[[Category:Gender]] |
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[[Category:Gender studies]] |
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[[Category:LGBT]] |
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[[Category:Sexual orientation]] |
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[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]] |
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[[yi:האמאסעקסואלוטעט]] |
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[[zh-yue:同性戀]] |
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[[zh:同性戀]] |
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Revision as of 14:20, 10 October 2008
| Millennium: | 1st millennium |
|---|---|
| Centuries: | |
| Decades: | |
| Years: |
| 996 by topic |
|---|
| Leaders |
| Categories |
| Gregorian calendar | 996 CMXCVI |
| Ab urbe condita | 1749 |
| Armenian calendar | 445 ԹՎ ՆԽԵ |
| Assyrian calendar | 5746 |
| Balinese saka calendar | 917–918 |
| Bengali calendar | 403 |
| Berber calendar | 1946 |
| Buddhist calendar | 1540 |
| Burmese calendar | 358 |
| Byzantine calendar | 6504–6505 |
| Chinese calendar | 乙未年 (Wood Goat) 3693 or 3486 — to — 丙申年 (Fire Monkey) 3694 or 3487 |
| Coptic calendar | 712–713 |
| Discordian calendar | 2162 |
| Ethiopian calendar | 988–989 |
| Hebrew calendar | 4756–4757 |
| Hindu calendars | |
| - Vikram Samvat | 1052–1053 |
| - Shaka Samvat | 917–918 |
| - Kali Yuga | 4096–4097 |
| Holocene calendar | 10996 |
| Iranian calendar | 374–375 |
| Islamic calendar | 385–386 |
| Japanese calendar | Chōtoku 2 (長徳２年) |
| Javanese calendar | 897–898 |
| Julian calendar | 996 CMXCVI |
| Korean calendar | 3329 |
| Minguo calendar | 916 before ROC 民前916年 |
| Nanakshahi calendar | −472 |
| Seleucid era | 1307/1308 AG |
| Thai solar calendar | 1538–1539 |
| Tibetan calendar | 阴木羊年 (female Wood-Goat) 1122 or 741 or −31 — to — 阳火猴年 (male Fire-Monkey) 1123 or 742 or −30 |
Events
By Place
Europe
- March/April — Pope John XV dies before being able to crown Otto III, King of Germany as Holy Roman Emperor. Otto resides in Pavia while waiting for the election of the next Pope.
- May 21 — Sixteen-year-old Otto III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by his cousin Pope Gregory V.
- October 24 — Hugh Capet, King of France dies and is succeeded by his son Robert II of France.
- November 1 — Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk, Bishop of Freising, which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi (Austria in Old High German).
Asia
- Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, fifth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, dies and is succeeded by his son Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
- The Niujie Mosque is constructed in Beijing.
By Topic
Religion
- May 3 — Pope Gregory V succeeds Pope John XV as the 138th pope. He was 24-year-old Bruno of Carinthia, grandson of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor and first cousin of Otto III. He is the first German Pope.
Births
- Drogo of Mantes, count of Valois and the Vexin
Deaths
- March/April — Pope John XV
- October 24 — Hugh Capet, King of France (b. 938)
- November 20 — Richard I of Normandy
- Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, fifth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt
- Li Fang, Chinese scholar and encyclopedist (born 925)