Procrastination

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Student syndrome (based on a graphic by Lawrence P. Leach)

Procrastination: from the Latin noun procrastinatio ("delay", "adjournment"), which consists of the prefix pro ("vor-", vorwärts- ") and the noun crastinum , -i (" tomorrow's day "; cf. the adverb cras = "tomorrow"). Also "extreme procrastination" is a pathological disorder, which is characterized by an unnecessary postponement of the beginning or by interrupting tasks so that completion does not come about or only under pressure . The opposite of procrastination is the precrastination .

General

Colloquially , people speak of “ loitering ”, “procrastinating” or “ slacking itis”. This is often associated with psychological stress. The disorder is particularly observed in people who work largely independently , such as B. Students , lawyers , journalists and teachers . Those affected usually suffer from it permanently and sometimes report that they had problems during their school days that continued in their later professional and private life.

Proponents of procrastination advocate “Tomorrow is still a day” , opponents, on the other hand, propagate the saying “What you can get today, don't postpone it until tomorrow.” Postponing brings time pressure , because the task will only be completed shortly before the deadline ) or at the end of a time window . Accurate scheduling and time management can prevent procrastination.

Differentiation from dawdling

Pathological procrastination must be differentiated from everyday dawdling , for example procrastinating on unloved ( aversive ) tasks that many people know (only a very small proportion of a student population reported that they should not be procrastinated at all), postponing tasks due to other, necessary priorities and successful work shortly before a deadline, which means that there is no loss of performance or subjective suffering.

In 1997 Eliyahu M. Goldratt coined the term "student syndrome " as a synonym for "procrastination". This term is used in particular in the field of critical chain project management (and also in education).

Disorder

Procrastination describes a behavior that is characterized by the fact that tasks are either not done or only after a very long time and often too late despite the available opportunities and skills. Instead, alternative activities are often carried out that are relatively more pleasant and / or allow immediate reinforcement (e.g. cleaning). It leads to subjective suffering, as those affected do not complete their tasks at all or only with great effort.

In analogy to the DSM criteria for other clinical disorders (criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which determine when someone has e.g. depression or a certain anxiety disorder), characteristics were defined that were determined using the DKP (questionnaire on the Diagnostic criteria procrastination) can be recorded.

Most of those affected no longer do what they actually want to do and often suffer from self-devaluation. Procrastination not only affects mental well-being, it can also lead to serious professional and personal consequences. It cannot be explained by laziness, but is a serious problem of self-control . Typical of academic procrastination is a hyperbolic distribution of task accomplishment in the overall population between the time the task was set and the deadline.

Decision factors

Sufferers decide what to continue and what to do, depending on several factors. These include:

  • Current mood
  • Effect of activity on mood
  • Anticipation of failure and success
  • Result of weighing the costs and benefits between doing later and doing now

consequences

Even if a distinction is often made between academic (= student) and everyday procrastination, both areas are usually affected in a similar way. The consequences are:

Physical and psychological ailments include, for example, muscle tension, sleep disorders, cardiovascular problems, stomach and digestive problems, inner restlessness, tension, feeling of pressure, fear or helplessness.

Bulimia learning

Procrastination during learning and the associated lack of time often leads to bulimia learning , in which the person concerned learns the material to be learned by heart for a short time in order to be able to list it in the performance assessment, but forgets it again relatively quickly after the query and therefore usually does not encounter similar problems. in the absence of practice and in-depth understanding, can apply.

conditions

The behavior is particularly evident when the conditions for achieving the goal are not very specific, but also when the task is perceived as particularly large or, for other reasons, particularly unpleasant ( aversive ). In the literature, a behavioral conditional model for the development and maintenance of procrastination is assumed (cf.). Then you always have the option of doing a task later (longitudinal competition) or now (lateral competition) to choose another activity. By not performing the unpleasant activity, on the one hand, the temporary elimination of negative feelings and consequences leads to a reduction in tension and, in the sense of conditioning theories, to negative reinforcement, by performing a comparatively less unpleasant, i.e. more positive activity (e.g. cleaning ) there is also positive reinforcement. Both ensure a better feeling in the short term, but in the long term lead to a lack of performance, stress, self-devaluation and a guilty conscience. This model should always be adapted individually - especially when it comes to the individual conditions that promote procrastination. The authors expressly point this out.

In order for this behavior to be perceived as not damaging to self-esteem, those affected often go through a series of rationalizations with which the behavior is then supposedly explained. Some researchers also differentiate between active and passive procrastinating : While the first type (active / arousal) deliberately waits until the last moment and then actively works, the second (passive / avoidant) shows avoidance and failure. Empirically, however, the two are closely related, but a distinction seems inappropriate in practice due to the high degree of correlation between the two supposed types (correlation of r = 0.68). Depending on the criterion and study, 10 to 75% of those questioned describe themselves as “procrastinators”. The estimated frequency therefore depends extremely on how a study asks about postponement. Procrastination in the sense of “problematic” or “extreme” postponement is much rarer, studies speak for an occurrence frequency of an average of 10%, also according to the diagnostic criteria procrastination (DKP) of the procrastination clinic of the University of Münster.

Diagnosis

For diagnostics (General Prokrastinationsfragebogen, SProf; Academic Procrastination State Inventory, APSI + DKP), in addition to disorder-specific instruments, questionnaires are used for differential diagnosis to not only comorbidities capture, but to also identify other conditions that may explain the work disorder better.

Single phenomenon

Also, test anxiety , minority or giftedness , cognitive impairments and / or deficient learning and working techniques can affect the performance and should be ruled out as explanations. Unrealistic perfectionism and self-handicapping to explain feared failures must also be considered.

Partial symptom

Procrastination can also be a partial symptom of a wider disease. An existing AD (H) D could also explain the disorder of self-management. It should also be clarified whether the loss of performance is due to a possible existing depression . It should also be checked for any compulsive or narcissistic personality disorder that is hindering performing or completing the task. Further, addiction , psychosis and anxiety disorders should be considered.

Treatment approaches

Procrastination has not yet been included in the current classification systems for mental disorders ( DSM-5 , ICD 10 ). Accordingly, there are hardly any systematically evaluated treatment approaches that aim to treat isolated postponement symptoms. Advice (e.g. Rückert, 2011,) usually provides general tips on how to work more efficiently, but the effectiveness of these has not been scientifically proven. Treatment should aim to improve self-control.

A current, manualized approach from cognitive behavioral therapy consists of various components, the effectiveness of which has been proven in various studies and has considerable effect sizes. The critical points in the process can be identified within a model for realizing intentions (so-called Rubicon model ). These often exist in the planning phase and preparation for action as well as in the transition to execution, where the initiation of action is particularly relevant. The modules (start on time , realistic planning , working time restriction and condition management ) can be followed individually or in combination with a self-observation with the help of a work diary. While the first two modules concern the critical phases of the Rubicon model , a third module can be used, which consists of working time restriction and condition management. The “Start on time” module is about actually adhering to a set point in time, taking concrete precautions and actively getting yourself into the right working mood. The "Realistic Planning" module works with specific occasional resolutions with regard to time, place, planned content and duration as well as a scope of the planned task that is adapted to the performance capabilities, as well as motivating thoughts. The "Working time restriction" module is the most modern and currently most successful method for treating procrastination - the attractiveness of working hours and thus the task is increased by reducing working hours, since at the beginning only two fixed time windows per working day are set, beyond which no work is carried out may. These are individually adapted to the previously examined average working time and may only be increased if the previously defined times have been used efficiently. The method increases daily working hours, reduces procrastination, increases the efficiency of working hours and leads to a better separation of work and leisure.

Working world

Procrastination can generally affect all persons or function holders, such as employees , civil servants , managers , employees , pupils or students . Unimportant, inconvenient or less interesting tasks are often postponed. A distinction is made between people who procrastinate in order to bring tension into life as ( excitement procrastinator ) and people who want to avoid negative feelings as ( avoidance procrastinator ). In the world of work, the feeling of being overwhelmed by the task at hand is an important reason. This is caused, for example, by a high workload, perfectionism or a lack of competence in dividing up task blocks.

literature

  • Neil Fiore: If not now, when? - How to outsmart your procrastination . mvg, Heidelberg 1996, ISBN 3-478-08542-X .
  • Hans-Werner Rückert: No more procrastination . Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York 2014, ISBN 978-3-593-50148-2 .
  • Piers Steel: The Zauderberg: Why we always postpone everything until tomorrow and how we stop doing it. Bastei Lübbe, Cologne 2011, ISBN 978-3-431-03836-1 .
  • Anna Höcker, Margarita Engberding, Fred Rist: Prokrastination - A manual for the treatment of pathological procrastination. (= Therapeutic practice). Hogrefe, Göttingen 2013, ISBN 978-3-8017-2179-4 .
  • Petr Ludwig, Petra Kubin, Gernot Bogner: No more procrastination. Procrastination - persistent postponement of commitments. Redline, Munich 2017, ISBN 978-3-86881-666-2 .
  • Anja Kauß: The Discreet Charm Of Procrastination. Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-89975-672-2 .

Web links

Commons : Procrastination  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: procrastination  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wiktionary: tomorrow  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Lawrence P. Leach: Critical Chain Project Management. Artech House: Boston, London, 2nd ed., 2004. - ISBN 978-1-58053-903-6 , p. 71.
  2. ↑ John Künzel: Präkrastination: The compulsion to immediately doing. (No longer available online.) In: Psychologie-Heute.de. June 5, 2014, archived from the original ; accessed on August 4, 2019 .
  3. ↑ David A. Rosenbaum et al .: Pre-Crastination: Hastening Subgoal Completion at the Expense of Extra Physical Effort . In: Psychological Science . tape 25 , no. 7 , 2014, p. 1487-1496 , doi : 10.1177 / 0956797614532657 .
  4. ↑ Annette Schäfer: Always everything immediately . In: Psychology Today . No. 12 , 2018, p. 34–37 (for a fee [accessed November 20, 2018]).
  5. ^ Eliyahu M. Goldratt: Critical Chain. North River Press: Great Barrington (MA), 1997. - ISBN 0-88427-153-6 .
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g A. Höcker, M. Engberding, F. Rist: Prokrastination: A manual for the treatment of pathological procrastination . Hogrefe, Göttingen 2013.
  7. ^ A b A. J. Howell, DC Watson, RA Powell, K. Buro: Academic Procrastination: The Pattern and Correlates of Behavioral Postponement. In: Personality and Individual Differences 40 (2006), pp. 1519-1530.
  8. ^ Severina Müller: Escape with Facebook: Potentials of the escapist use of social media . Ed .: Nomos Verlag. 2018, ISBN 978-3-8452-9045-4 , pp. 69 .
  9. ↑ How can you avoid learning bulimia? - Study book blog. In: Studibuch. June 4, 2018, accessed on September 7, 2019 (German).
  10. ↑ Digital against bulimia learning: quizzes in the classroom and at home, podcasts for on the go. In: e-teaching.org. July 27, 2018, accessed September 7, 2019 .
  11. ↑ www pointer de, Hamburg Germany: And procrastination greets you every day. In: pointer.de. Retrieved September 7, 2019 .
  12. ↑ That helps against your eternal "procrastination" (further knowledge - learning tips & methods). In: scook.de. Retrieved September 7, 2019 .
  13. ↑ Richard David Precht: - We need an educational revolution! Retrieved November 24, 2019 .
  14. ^ Max Haerder: Education policy: On the trail of Bologna. Retrieved November 24, 2019 .
  15. ↑ Is our school system sick? In: fritzundfraenzi.ch. November 24, 2019, accessed July 9, 2019 .
  16. ↑ Rainer Ammel: Good grades without stress: A teacher reveals the best tips and tricks to successfully pass high school . Heyne Verlag, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-19728-5 ( google.de [accessed June 7, 2019]).
  17. ^ Tuckman et al: The top 15 procrastination rationalizations. 2008.
  18. ^ JR Ferrari, JL Johnson, WG McCown: Procrastination and Task Avoidance. Theory, Research, and Treatment . Plenary, New York 1995.
  19. ↑ AH Chun Chu, JN Choi: Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of "active" procrastination behavior on attitudes and performance. In: The Journal of Social Psychology. 145 (3), 2005, pp. 245-264.
  20. Jump up ↑ J. Ferrari, J. O'Callaghan, I. Newbegin: Prevalence of procrastination in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia: Arousal and avoidance delays among adults. In: North American Journal of Psychology. 7, 2005, pp. 1-6.
  21. ↑ F. Rist, M. Engberding, J. Patzelt, J. Beißner: But tomorrow I'll start properly! Procrastination as a common work disorder. In: Personnel Management. 6, 2006, pp. 64-78.
  22. ↑ P. Steel: Arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastinators: Do they exist? In: Personality and Individual Differences. 48, 2010, pp. 926-934.
  23. ↑ A. Höcker: Effective treatment of procrastination: evaluation of various treatment methods. Dissertation . University of Münster 2010.
  24. ^ Andreas Helmke, Friedrich-Wilhelm Schrader: Procrastination in the course of studies - manifestations and motivational conditions. In: U. Schiefele, K.-P. Wild (Ed.): Interest and motivation to learn. Studies on development, promotion and impact . Waxmann, Münster 2000, pp. 207-225.
  25. ^ Volker Faust : Psychiatric-neurological information offer of the Liebenau Foundation. With the collaboration of Walter Fröscher and Günter Hole. Mental Health 142: Procrastination. Liebenau Foundation, People - Medicine - Economy, Meckenbeuren-Liebenau, 2018. (Postpone).
  26. ^ Volker Faust: Psychiatric-neurological information offer of the Liebenau Foundation. With the collaboration of Walter Fröscher and Günter Hole. Mental Health 142: Procrastination. Liebenau Foundation, People - Medicine - Economy, Meckenbeuren-Liebenau, 2018. (Postpone).
  27. ↑ Henri C. Schouwenburg, Clarry H. Lay, Timothy A. Pychyl, Joseph R. Ferrari (Eds.): Counseling the procrastinator in academic settings. Ed .: American Psychological Association. Washington DC 2004.
  28. ↑ Hans-Werner Rückert: No more procrastination . Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main / New York 2011, ISBN 978-3-593-38144-2 .
  29. ↑ Hans-Werner Rückert: Postponement in a nutshell. (PDF) Central Facility for Student Counseling and Psychological Counseling at the Free University of Berlin, accessed on August 4, 2019 .
  30. ↑ Piers Steel: Der Zauderberg: Why we always postpone everything until tomorrow and how we stop doing it. Cologne 2011, ISBN 978-3-431-03836-1 .
  31. ↑ A. Höcker, M. Engberding, J. Beißner, F. Rist: Reduction of procrastination: modules for starting on time and realistic planning. In: behavior therapy. 19 (1), 2009, pp. 28-32.
  32. ↑ A. Höcker, M. Engberding, R. Haferkamp, ​​F. Rist: Effectiveness of working time restrictions in the treatment of procrastination. In: behavior therapy. 22 (1), 2012, pp. 9-16.
  33. ↑ Hans-Werner Rückert: No more procrastination , 2011, p. 15.
  34. ↑ Phyllis Korkki: Driven to Worry, and to Procrastinate. The New York Times, February 25, 2012, accessed April 6, 2020 .