Brong Confederation
The Brong Confederation was a political union of several states and local regions in what is now Ghana , which existed from May 1881 to the mid-1890s. This union was primarily a military defense alliance with the purpose of being able to better counter possible attempts to recapture a regaining Ashanti empire . The Brong Confederation essentially emerged from the states of the so-called "Northeast Alliance", which was created in 1875 after the defeat of Asantes in the Anglo-Ash war of 1869–1874 as a defense alliance of the former northeast provinces of Asantes.
All Akan who do not live in woodlands are referred to as “Brong” in the Twi language. However, this term only refers to the Akan in the savannah areas north of the rainforest belt . This term is not used for Akan peoples on the seashore. The name Brong Confederation comes from the fact that the majority of the population in most areas of the northern and northeastern periphery of the Ashante heartland is made up of Akan.
Members of the Brong Confederation were initially Atebubu, Abeasi, Kete-Kratschi , Buëm and some factions from Kwahu, as well as the areas further north around Gwandijiowa, Yeji and Salaga . Nkoranza was added later . The political leadership of the Confederation was in the hands of the "Dente Bosomfo" and the King of Atebubu.
prehistory
Northeast Alliance
With the destruction of the Ashanti empire, the dethronement of the Ashanti king and the burning of Kumasi by the British in 1874, Dwaben, under the leadership of the “Dwabenhene”, began an open anti-Ashantic rebellion, mainly to gain control from the present Pro-British Ashanti government from Kumasi for the future permanently. The Dwabenhene quickly declared the independence of his area of influence from the previous Ashantin confederation. The uprising quickly spread across the region. The Krachis and numerous other groups on the northeastern periphery of the former Ashanti Empire, including Salaga, Atebubu, Yeji, Buëm and some factions from Nsuta and Kwahu, also joined the Dwabens, with whom they formed a common "northeastern alliance" . Ashanti officials who were stationed in the north-eastern provincial cities of the former Ashanti Empire on the official state mandate, such as B. for tax collection, for border control or for political purposes, were murdered without further ado. The same fate befell normal traders and craftsmen whose origins point to Kumasi or the home country of Asante.
In order to put down the rebellion, an Ashanti army marched into Dwaben on September 12, 1875. Victory was quickly won and the rebel leaders were driven to flight. They mainly fled south to the British protectorate area, as they believed that there was the greatest possible security against Ashantic attacks here. However, the Dwabenhene himself was captured during this operation and was brought to Kumasi. However, in the course of the events, numerous residents of Dwaben left the country in a south-easterly direction to join their compatriots and relatives in "New Dwaben". After the king was abducted, the king of Obodomase took over the political leadership of the Dwaben country.
As for Nsuta, after the defeat of Dwaben, some efforts were made to restore official allegiance to Asante. The other peoples of the Northeast Alliance, however, refused to do so. Ashanti ambassadors, who were then sent to persuade the political leaders of these regions to return peacefully to the Ashanti confederation, were all murdered on various occasions, until finally Kumasi did not send any more.
With the establishment of the "Northeast Alliance" in 1875, however, Asante was cut off from those caravan routes that ran via Salaga towards Niger . As early as 1874, the king of Atebubu, Gyan Kwaku, had forbidden all traders from cities that declared themselves loyal to Kumasi, on threat of the death penalty, to cross his country in order to trade with Salaga and from here with the interior of Africa to drift. The "Dente Bosomfo" in Kete-Kratschie organized an arms embargo against Asante in 1875. This was particularly aimed at European companies which, with the help of Accras and Adas, supplied the now pro-British Asante with weapons and ammunition from Accra via the Volta. The Ntwumuru also controlled the trade routes north of Krachi Land and searched every box and sack of the traveling traders for contraband goods for Asante "on the orders of Dente," as they said. The only intact trade connection to the trans-Saharan trade in the north that Asante had remained after 1874 was that via Kintampo. All other trade routes were blocked by enemies.
British advance inland
The British created their “Volta River District” with effect from September 2, 1880, thereby establishing British jurisdiction over Krobo, Akwapim, Shai and Krepi and other states. This initially brought Kete-Kratschi and Buëm under British influence. However, the British only exercised jurisdiction in their “Volta River District”; the rest of the state's sovereignty remained in the hands of the previous local authorities. The locals hoped that this would provide better protection against future Ashanti attempts at conquest. However, a simultaneous request by the Kwahu nation for admission to the British Protectorate was rejected.
Establishment of the Brong Confederation
Despite the blocked trade routes, Asante slowly regained the prosperity and strength that had shaped the image of pre-war Asante after 1874 . In 1880, the Asantehene Mensah Bonsu felt politically strong enough to be active in reopening the eastern trade routes and to show strength while at the same time considering regaining the lost northeastern provinces. The Asantehene sent a message to the "Dente Bosomfo", Kwasi Gyantrubi, in which he demanded the return of a Nsuta prince living in Krachi. From the sources available today it is not entirely clear whether it was the real wish of the named person to return to Nsuta, which was pro-Ashante at the time, or whether this was just a propaganda move by the Ashanti king. But the fact that the overpowering "Dente Bosomfo" refused to return the Nsuta people was repeatedly brought forward as a complaint by Ashanti on a later occasion.
The message of the Ashanti king alerted all leaders of the former Northeast Alliance. An Ashanti invasion, it seemed, was imminent, for which only one reason was sought. The result was that at a meeting of the most important chiefs and kings of the Northeast Alliance in Dentemanso in May 1881, a new antiashant defensive alliance was founded by taking a holy oath before the god Dente. H. the old alliance was renewed on the basis of a common oath with simultaneous divine confirmation. The "Brong Confederation" was born.
Upheavals in Asante
Popular uprising
At the beginning of 1883 there was a public outrage in Asante, which quickly spread throughout Ashanti land to a general uprising against the government in Kumasi. The trigger for the outrage was a considerable increase in taxes by the Asantehene, as well as the punishment of minor offenses by means of excessively high fines. The "Kumasi Nkwankwaa" played a leading role in the uprising. The “Nkwankwaa” not only succeeded in mobilizing the broad masses of the “Ahiafo” for the uprising, they also succeeded in forming an alliance with the Ashantine “Asikafo” in the fight against the government. Above all, the Asikafo saw their economic positions hindered, if not threatened, by the strict measures taken by Mensah Bonsu and his system of government in general. The coup was successful. On March 8, 1883, the Asantehene and his government were finally declared deposed. The government was taken over by the "Kwasafohyiamu", the "Council of the Common People and the Chiefs", which was supposed to exercise the business of government until a new Asantehenes was elected.
Start of a civil war
However , an armed conflict breaks out between the parties of the two candidates for a possible successor, Kwaku Dua Kumah and Asantehene Kofi Karikari , who was dethroned in 1874 , regarding the successor to the office of Asantehene . Kofi Karikari was supported in particular by the Mamponghene and the Nsutahene.
British attempt at influence
The Asante chiefs finally felt it advisable to send a message to the British governor asking for assistance in suppressing the civil war. A request was made to the governor to hear the two parties to the dispute and to pronounce a verdict in favor of one of the two rival candidates. In this regard, it was proposed that a corresponding court should be set up in Prahsue on the British-Ashanti border.
The British government then sent Captain Barrow to Asante for initial contact on this matter, with Captain Brandon Kirby accompanying him as "Assistant Inspector". At the beginning of April 1883, the two officers arrived in Kumasi, where they stayed for about five weeks and had conversations with various personalities in and around Kumasi. Kirby mentions in this context that he also spoke to King Kofi Karikari, who was dethroned in 1874. The latter even admitted to him that, although he had once had white prisoners and fought against white soldiers, he, Kirby, was the first white man he spoke to. The governor's message to the Ashanti was clear: he agreed to judge the claims of anyone if the adversaries lay down their arms. The Ashanti accepted and initially general calm returned. The population used the time to remove the numerous damage that had occurred in the course of the conflict, especially in and around Kumasi.
Renewed arguments
Despite the British mediation efforts, the civil war escalated again. During August 1883, several battles were fought between the armed supporters of both parties. In the end, however, Kofi Karikari's party was defeated. His supporter, the Mamponghene Kwame Adwetewa, was killed in the battle, and Nsutahene Yaw Akoma committed suicide. Fearing reprisals, many of Nsuta's residents fled eastwards.
On April 27, 1884, Kwaku Dua Kumah was enthroned as the new Asantehene under the name Kwaku Dua II. However, he died of smallpox 71 days later, on July 7, 1884 . His rival and adversary, Kofi Karikari, also died on June 24, 1884.
Again there were disputes about the succession between two opponents and their supporters. On the one hand there was Yaw Atwereboanna, who had the main factions from Mampong, Nsuta, Agona and Kokofu behind him as a supporter and on the other hand Agyeman Prempeh, who also raised claims to the royal dignity. The choice of a new Asantehene was initially out of the question.
The conflict escalated and briefly turned into armed struggle in 1887. In July 1887, however, both sides agreed an armistice and they agreed to peaceful negotiations in which the succession should be clarified. Eventually it seemed to have been agreed during the negotiations that Agyeman Prempeh should succeed as Asantehene. However, the cities of Mampong, Kokofu and Nsuta, which had previously supported Yaw Atwereboanna, were reluctant to recognize Agyeman Prempeh as the new Asantehene.
At the same time, in September 1887, an embassy from Nsuta appeared to the British governor in Accra and asked for the repatriation (return) of the queen mother of Nsutahene, Abena Siabura, to Nsuta, who had fled to Kete-Kratschi in 1883. It was also stated in this context that 100 British shillings had already been sent to the "Dente Bosomfo" Kwasi Gyantrubi to let them go. However, the "Dente Bosomfo" refused to allow the Queen Mother to return to Nsuta. British Governor White found the matter suspicious, however, and doubted that the Nsuta messengers would have told the whole truth. Perhaps the Queen Mother doesn't want to return at all, according to the entry in the “Palaver Book” of September 26, 1887.
Asante and the Brong Confederation
Political developments
Although the choice for the new Asantehene had fallen on Agyeman Prempeh, Mampong, Kokofu and Nsuta had initially held back on their recognition. On March 26, 1888, Agyeman Prempeh was finally enthroned as the new Asantehene Prempeh I. A short time later, however, the Resister Party began again with hostile acts against the Ashantine government. This responded with a military expedition. The troops of the objector party were defeated and in June 1888 Kokofu was occupied by the Ashanti army. The Mamponghene Owusu Sekyere and Nsutahene Kwaku Dente were both militarily defeated at the end of 1888. They fled to the area of the Brong Confederation, where "Dente Bosomfo" Kwasi Gyantrubi even offered them settlement land and assured them of support in the fight against Kumasi. Kwasi Gyantrubi was fully aware of the conflict he was creating, but he was also well prepared. For Asantehene Agyeman Prempeh, this was a welcome opportunity to contemplate an invasion of the breakaway northern provinces.
The British governor in Accra, who had been consulted in advance on this matter, had encouraged the "Dente Bosomfo" to give land to the refugees, but warned against an escalation of the fighting. The governor also offered British protection to the two fugitive kings within the territory of the Gold Coast Colony, but both the Mamponghene and Nsutahene refused and decided "to continue fighting the Kumasi people".
From Atebubu in September 1889 the Mamponghene and Nsutahene began an attack on the Ashanti forces with their followers. The advance ended in a bitter fiasco for the rebels. Numerous followers of the two rebel kings sneaked away secretly in the face of a hopeless situation and made their own peace with the Asantehene.
Some time after the failed attack, Nsutahene Kwaku Dente, who lived in exile in the Brong Federation, died. Successor and new king of Nsuta was Adu Agyei II, albeit also living in exile in Brong.
With the restoration of general peaceful conditions in Asante, a resurgence of the Ashantine state was recorded, especially as far as the state apparatus and its political power were concerned. The advantages that the Brong Confederation had so far made attractive to the Ashanti refugees, however, faded more and more. The government of the “Dente Bosomfo” also contributed to this, whose domestic policy at the local level was particularly characterized by excessive taxation and strict regulation in many areas. For example, he had slaves pulled out of the trade caravans (as a kind of "trade permit fee"), which did not exactly make him popular with traders. Although politically independent and so far spared an Ashanti attack, the Brong Confederation increasingly lost its attractiveness among the Ashantis living here, even if they had been reluctant to return home. More and more of the Ashanti in exile left and returned to their old homeland.
In early 1890, tensions arose between the new Nsutahene Adi Agyei and the leaders of the Brong Confederation. The reason for this was that the Nsuta living in and around Atebubu, at least most of them, refused to pay the taxes and duties charged to the Atebubuhene so that he could forward them to Kratschi. As a result, Nsutahene Adi Agyei made his peace with Prempeh and returned to Asante with many of his followers. Few stubborn dissidents remained in Atebubu, including a Nsuta chief named Yaw Effrim.
The British now also opened up in the direction of Asante and Governor Griffith, without having received approval from the London Colonial Office , submitted to the Ashanti the offer to take Asante under British protection. Thereupon the general assembly of all chiefs of the Amanto states was called. Over a period of more than six weeks they sat together almost every day to discuss the proposal. H. M. Hill, who led the British delegation to Kumasi, said afterwards that the Assembly had been very divided on its opinion. No further information is known about this matter; the Ashanti probably ultimately rejected the proposal.
Buëm crisis
In 1891 the Buëm waged war against the neighboring Domaben. But since the Buëm were members of the Brong Confederation, the central personality of the Brong Confederation, the "Dente Bosomfo" in Kete-Kratschi, was very upset that the Buëm had dared to take this step without his prior consent. “Dente Bosomfo” Kwasi Gyantrubi therefore demanded fines from the Boëm and threatened them with war in the event of non-payment. The Buëm then no longer took part in joint actions of the Brong Confederation.
Special case of Nkoranza
Nkoranza was one of the northern provinces of Asante until 1874. After the fall of the Ashanti Empire in 1874, Nkoranza was one of the Brong provinces that continued to exist as independent states after the new rulers in Kumasi were renounced. But Nkoranza did not join the "Northeast Alliance" in 1875, like its eastern neighbor Atebubu, and even after the Brong Confederation was founded in 1881, it remained at a distance from it. Although they were loyal to the Asantehene, they viewed themselves more as an independent ally than a part of the Ashanti Empire. However, at the time of the reign of the Kwasi Poku, as Nkoranzahene, d. H. during the civil war of 1888, the newly enthroned Asantehene supported with troops in the fight against the Mamponghene.
In September 1888, however, Kwasi Poku committed suicide to avoid the threat of dethronement. His successor as Nkoranzahene was Kofi Fa. However, he refused to swear the oath of allegiance to the Asantehene and to extradite some Ashantine refugees who had found refuge in his country to Asante, as was requested from Kumasi. Although initially trying to achieve reconciliation on a diplomatic level, the Ashanti king was forced to prepare for a military expedition against Nkoranza in early 1892. In May 1892 it was reported that these preparations were extremely extensive and that the Ashanti had at the same time envisaged the submission of the other renegade Brong peoples, but above all of Atebubu, to the planned enterprise. The "Kumasi Bantamahene" was appointed commander of the Ashanti army set up for this purpose.
General preparations for war
Asante's war preparations were not hidden from the Nkoranzahene either and so he sent 12 slaves along with some gold to the "Dente Bosomfo" with the request to join his confederation and the request for help. The high priest returned some Dente amulets and a load of gunpowder to the Nkoranzahene as a symbolic welcome.
Atebubu was also aware of the imminent danger. However, a protectorate treaty had been concluded with the British on November 25, 1890 and had been integrated into the protected area of the British gold coast colony. Nevertheless, Atebubu still belonged politically to the Brong Confederation, although the entire left Voltaufer south of the Dako estuary and the areas behind it (and thus also Kete-Kratschi and the Buëm region) had been a German protected area since July 5, 1884 Belonged to Togo . Now belonging to the British reserve, the King of Atebubu asked the British Governor for assistance with regard to the upcoming attack on Nkoranza. However, Governor Griffith refused to send military aid at the time. Thereupon the "Dente Bosomfo" himself got in contact with the governor in Accra and asked, if he could not get any help, at least some advice on how to proceed with the impending attack on Atebubu. However, since the affairs of the “Dente Bosomfo” fell under German jurisdiction, the governor's response was appropriate. He could give support to Nkoranza or the Atebubus, if he wanted, but that was the sole responsibility of the Krachis and their decisions would not be interfered with in any way. It was made to understand that the Krachis had no right to negotiate with the representatives of the British crown at all and therefore refused to discuss politics or even military actions with the "Dente Bosomfo". This was a kind of diplomatic expulsion, but it also included tacit approval of the Brong's taking up arms and Krachi military aid for Atebubu, which was under British protection.
The Krachis began to prepare for war. The Mamponghene living in exile in Brong, Owusu Sekyere, advised the "Dente Bosomfo" not to give Nkoranza any military aid, but Kwasi Gyantrubi was determined to fight. He knew that the Ashanti would attack the Confederation as a whole if they had successfully brought the Nkoranza issue to a close.
The "Dente Bosomfo" therefore sent out a message to all members of the Confederation, in which it invited them to make their contribution to the war effort in the form of troops and weapons. The Buëms did not obey orders immediately, but there were other reasons, generally in the states of the Brong Confederation the call to arms was followed with great enthusiasm. Kwabena Kru, the king of Abease and Kwabena Asante, the king of Atebubu immediately dispatched armed troops to Nkoranza.
The British Governor Griffith, however, did not seem to have expected such an energetic reaction from the Brong Confederation to his tacit consent and was visibly alarmed by the war efforts against the Asantehene. It was barely a month since his meeting with the "Dente Bosomfo" when he called on the Kwahus, who were also under his political suzerainty, not to join the Krachis.
A short time later, the "Dente Bosomfo" ordered that all roads leading from Asante to Atebubu, Kratschi and Kwahu should be closed. The aim was, on the one hand, to prevent an Ashantin surprise attack and, on the other hand, to make secret negotiations by pro-Ashantin forces that were everywhere more difficult.
Salaga is eliminated
In Salaga, however, the mood turned. The city was economically on the ground since the closure of the caravan routes to Asante, but its economic lifeblood lay in the long-distance trade between Asante or the coast and the states on the Niger. The city became increasingly impoverished, many traders moved away and pro-Ascan tendencies became louder and louder. Ashantic propaganda campaigns, in which the Salagas were encouraged to support the forthcoming “March on Krachi”, were increasingly fruitful. The tax burden imposed, which one had to pay to Kete-Kratschi, also contributed significantly to the general dissatisfaction. Finally, there was an uprising in 1892, which forced the rulers who had previously been in power, who were positive towards the Brong Confederation, and most of their supporters to flee.
The Brong Ashanti War
It is not known when the expected war between Asante and Nkoanza and thus also with the Brong Confederation began, but it probably happened in July 1893. Although the city of Nkoranza was occupied, looted and burned down by Ashanti troops in the course of the war, they succeeded united Nkoranza Brong forces in August 1893 to inflict a heavy defeat on the Kumasi forces. In appreciation of this success, even if it was only temporary, the “Dente Boromfo”, Kwasi Gyantrubi, was also sent some slaves and some gold, as the success was primarily attributed to the influence of “Dente”. However, this was only a small temporary success, because in August 1893 alone at least two larger battles took place in which the Ashanti troops retained the upper hand.
After receiving the message of victory, the "Dente Bosomfo" called all kings and chiefs of the Brong Confederation to a joint meeting in order to coordinate the further procedure with them. The meeting, in which Nkoranzahene, who had fled to Kratschi, as well as the chiefs of Yeji, Prang, Abease, Dwang and Bassa and also the "Dente Bosomfo" took part, took place in October 1893 at Wiase near Atebubu.
In November 1893, the Ashanti army finally invaded Atebubu. A short time later, the trade route leading through Atebubu to Salaga, which had previously been closed to Ashanti traders, was again freely accessible to the Ashanti. In Salaga the reopening of the trade route was widely acclaimed.
British Colonial Policy and the End of the Confederation
So far, the British had avoided intervening in the conflict because they wanted to avoid a military clash with the Ashanti armed forces at all costs. In view of the developments, however, a direct confrontation with the Ashanti in Atebubu seemed inevitable. The British had no other alternative than to finally become active, because should the Ashantine army win in Atebubu while the British were inactive at the same time, this would not only have ended the protectorate status for Atebubu, it would also have signaled other areas which were also in the focus of British interests. Governor Griffith therefore decided to defend the British protectorate over Atebubu and in November 1893 sent a force of 300 Haussa soldiers , equipped with the latest Maxim machine guns , under the command of "Inspector-General" Scott to Atebubu.
At the same time, the British government passed on to the other states of the Brong Confederation, provided they did not belong to the German area of interest, the offer of military aid in the event of an Ashanti threat to their existence.
The British march in Atebubu sounded all alarm bells in Kumasi. The memories of 1874 were still too fresh and so it is not surprising that Asantehene Agyeman Prempeh hastily wrote a letter to the British governor in Accra, in which he stated that it was not his intention to attack Atebubu, but that he was only his army sent into the field to punish Nkoranza. The order to retreat was given to his army.
Despite the governor's earlier approval of Krachi aid to Atebubu, Kwasi Gyantrubi has now been asked by the British to leave the British protectorate of Atebubu and retreat to Krachi with his army. The "Dente Bosomfo" finally thought it advisable to give up its original plans, which aimed at providing military support for the rebellious opposition in Nsuta and Mampong, and to comply with the wishes of the British. He withdrew to Krachi with his people.
The British governor then sent a letter to the German governor of Togo, Jesko von Puttkamer , in which he asked him "to act in accordance with his credentials" and to curtail the rights of the Dente priest and thus also his authority in such a way that it would effectively mean the liquidation of the Brong Confederation.
From a political point of view, the intervention of the British resulted in a stalemate, because none of the three sides, Ashanti, Brong and the British, dared to take any further steps towards realizing their goals, as they would risk the complete loss of their positions of power. In an effort to defuse the situation, the Asantehene sent a delegation led by the "Okyeame" (chief spokesman of the Asantehene), Kwaku Fukuo, to London to negotiate directly with the British government on the future of the gold coast hinterland. The delegation, which set sail on March 28, 1895, was not received by the British government after their arrival in London and had to return without any results. The British answer came on September 23, 1895, when Governor Maxwell delivered an ultimatum to the Asantehene, in which he asked him to admit a permanent British resident in Kumasi. The seeds of a new war were laid.
The British governor's appeal to the representatives of the German government in Togo was fruitful, because the “Dente Bosomfo” was also a thorn in the side of the Germans. After Kwasi Gyantrubi returned with his army from Atebubu in 1893, he tried to continue his previous aggressive local policy, especially with regard to trade and tax policy. As the official protecting power, the Germans were completely exempt from the financial control of the Kratschie country, which of course they could not accept in the long run. In addition, there was the political power that the Dente priest still possessed as the central figure of a quasi-independent confederation of the anti-Ashanti camp. The German colonial government could not tolerate such competition under any circumstances, and so it happened as it had to: Kwasi Gyantrubi was arrested and executed in November 1894 in front of a firing squad.
With the loss of its most colorful leadership figure, the Brong Confederation practically ceased to exist. Jointly coordinated actions did not take place in the following period and the tax transfer to Kete-Kratschie was also discontinued.
Footnotes
- ↑ The "Dente Bosomfo" was the high priest of the famous Dente oracle, which was located in a cave on the left bank of the Volta near the town of Kete-Kratschi (called Krachikrom until 1877). The place with the oracle was called Dentemanso. Dente is the traditional main god of the Krachi living here, but not only here, he is also worshiped by the Ashanti and some western Ewe peoples. Therefore, the oracle is famous far beyond the borders of the country. Since the Kratschi never came together to form a common state, the “Dente Bosomfo” was also the most important political person in Krachiland in the past. Today the area of the Dente oracle is flooded by the Volta reservoir .
- ↑ also Dwabin, Juaben or similar spellings
- ↑ Dwabenhene is the title of the King of Dwaben.
- ↑ "New Dwaben" was once founded in 1832 as an Ashantine enclave on the border between Akim-Abuakwa, Akwapim and the Krobo country, after the old homeland around Dwaben had been left as a result of civil war events at the time. The main town of "New Dwaben" is Koforidua (Koforodua, Komfrodua).
- ↑ Of course, Accra and Ada dealers officially supplied certain Haussa dealers who were based on the Volta. Secretly, however, these were covert arms deliveries by the Europeans to the Ashantin king. However, this was also known in the ranks of the Brong Confederation.
- ↑ Opoku mentions that a corresponding law, which justified searches for weapons, gunpowder and the like, had previously been obtained from the British government.
- ↑ In fact, numerous Nsutas had fled to Kete-Kratschi in connection with the events of 1875, where they even lived in their own city district. Among them was the sister of the ruling Nsutahene, Gyama Poku, together with one of the Nsuta princes, and Abena Siabura, the queen mother of the then Nsutahene.
- ↑ The "Nkwankwaa" was a political anti-war or conscientious objector movement that emerged in the late 1860s. It consisted predominantly of the young sons of long-established and well-established families, whose prospects of gaining a public office or just the prospect of getting into positions that would allow the acquisition of excessive wealth, due to the hereditary succession arrangements for most of the public offices were rather low. Since they saw themselves as excluded from office and wealth, they were also not ready to go to war for the powerful of this country and finally organized a political counter-movement to the ruling system.
- ↑ "Ahiafo" is a general term for the community of all poor and underprivileged members of Ashantic society.
- ↑ "Asikafo" ( plural ; singular : "Osikani") is the general term for rich people among the Akan of the Gold Coast. (derived from "sika" = gold) This was a class of wealthy traders.
- ↑ The presentation in the literature is not uniform at this point, because other sources name June 10, 1883 as the anniversary of the death of Kwaku Dua II.
- ↑ This is also called Adu Tre elsewhere in the literature.
- ↑ The "Amanto" was that confederation in which 47 Akan nations and ethnic groups once united under a common political leadership to form the kingdom of Asante. The individual founding nations of Asantes are therefore also called Amanto states. The Amanto Confederation emerged from the "Amansie" Association, which was probably founded around 1630.
- ↑ King of Nkoranza
- ↑ The mausoleum of the Ashanti kings is located in the village of Bantama near Kumasi. This is where the “chairs of the ancestors” are, if one disregards the golden chair as the state symbol of Asante. The office of Bantamahene was at the same time hereditary linked to that of Krontihene, the commander in chief of the Ashanti army in the event of the king's absence.
- ↑ With the Treaty of Abetifi of May 5, 1888, Kwahu recognized British sovereignty and was integrated into the protectorate area of the British colony of the Gold Coast.
swell
- David Owusu-Ansah, Daniel Miles McFarland: Historical Dictionary of Ghana , London 1995
- DJE Maier: The Dente Oracle, the Bron Confederation, and Asante: Religion and the Politics of Secession , In: Journal of African History , 22 (2), 1981, pp. 229-243
- Ivor Wilks: Aspects of bureaucratization in Ashanti in the nineteenth century , In: Journal of African History , 7 (2), 1966, pp. 215-232
- William Tordoff: The Ashanti Confederacy , In: Journal of African History , 3 (3), 1962, pp. 399-417
- H. Gruner: Study trip to the Gold Coast to explore the cocoa and cola folk culture , In: Der Tropenpflanzer , 8 (8), 1904, pp. 418–431; 8 (9), 1904, pp. 492-508 and 4 (10), 1904, pp. 540-559
- G. Dilger: A journey into the landscape Kumawu , In: Communications of the Geographical Society for Thuringia to Jena , 4, 1886, pp. 8-15
- Theophil Opoku: A negro pastor's preaching trip through the countries on the Volta River , In: Evangelisches Missions-Magazin (Basel), NF, 29 (July), 1885, pp. 257ff., 305ff., 353ff.
- Brandon Kirby: A Journey into the Interior of Ashanti , In: Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society , 6 (8), 1884, pp. 447-452
- Jean Marie Allman: The youngmen and the porcupine: class, nationalism and Asante's struggle for self-determination, 1954-57 , In: Journal of African History , 31, 1990, pp. 263-279