Digital educational game

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Children at an educational game computer
Children play an educational game on an iPad
Children play an educational game on a tablet

The term digital learning game ( English educational video game , also as a part of serious games ) refers to games that take place in a hardware and software-based virtual environment and aim to stimulate learning of specific, desired content. Digital learning games are typically used in education and training systems, also via e-learning . Like entertainment-oriented computer games , they should be "fun". Your primary goal, however, is the acquisition of knowledge and skills.

term

There is no uniform use of terms relating to computer games in learning and educational contexts, neither in German-speaking countries nor in English-language discussions. The terms digital learning game , computer learning game , digital educational game , serious game and (digital) educational game often seem to be used synonymously. In English-speaking countries, the expression Game Based Learning (GBL) is also used to denote the learning process with digital learning games.

Contrary to this diffuse language practice, a precise use of the term is becoming apparent with some authors. The term serious game, for example, is often used as a “marketing term” in order to distinguish one's own products or research objects from “mere” entertainment games. Occasionally, however, it also includes digital advertising games, games used in political campaigns, or games from the field of visual arts. Used in this broad sense, all digital educational games are serious games, but not all serious games are digital educational games. Educational games , for example, try to keep the balance between the learning objective and the game itself. Which game can be classified and how does not only depend on the product design itself, but also on the type of use and deployment. The game Minecraft is offered as a school subject in Sweden, although it was not explicitly developed as a digital educational game.

Classification in computer game education

Digital learning games are the subject of research in computer game education , which in turn represents a sub-area of media education . The educational game-related computer game education has three central tasks (cf. in an epistemological perspective Brezinka 1995).

  • It examines the role of digital learning games in educational practice (school, social work, parental home, etc.), computer games in non-educational contexts (educationally relevant forms, dissemination, effects) and addresses digital learning games in educational, but non-scientific discourses ( e.g. in the media, in media-educational guidebooks, in lesson plans and in guidebooks for the design of digital learning games).
  • She criticizes the use of computer games in educational practice as well as educational, non-scientific statements about computer games. It is based on the results of descriptive educational computer game research and on forms of argumentation from educational ethics and educational philosophy.
  • It conducts methodological and technological research with the aim of providing scientifically justifiable information on the design of digital learning games and their pedagogical and educational use (development and evaluation). Methodological research draws on the results of the first two research tasks (e.g. the description of the didactic-methodological design of entertaining computer games), e.g. B. to develop research hypotheses.

Although these three research tasks are related to one another, they follow different research logics and must therefore be differentiated from a systematic-epistemological perspective. Important scientific neighboring disciplines of computer game education are media studies , psychological media effects research and game studies .

Psychological constructs and theories

Various psychological constructs can be found in digital learning games or are reinforced through the use of these:

  • Located learning : Learning in meaningful and relevant contexts is far more effective.
  • Flow : Flow arises when a conscious merging of the player with the game action occurs during the game, which leads to the external environment and time being forgotten. Research has shown that “flow” has a positive effect on the learning process.
  • Motivation : Due to their imaginative content, games trigger an intrinsic motivation in the players or learners.

Classification in the learning context

In general, games can be used in two different ways for learning purposes. On the one hand by integrating games into learning situations and on the other hand by embedding learning tasks in games (as is the case with digital learning games).

In the former, a game is embedded in a didactically prepared learning situation so that participants can gather experiences with it, which are later reflected on and evaluated together. The actual learning effect only occurs in the subsequent evaluation.

On the other hand, didactically prepared tasks are integrated into the game. The game itself acts as a reward for the learner for completing the task, as further game levels can be unlocked, points can be achieved or other benefits can be obtained by solving tasks. The tasks can either be closely linked to the game plot in terms of content or be independent of it. Ultimately, to solve the tasks, a separate part of the knowledge must be accessed from the game, which contains the information to be learned.

Learning in the game

In general, learning in games is reminiscent of the principle of operant conditioning. Much like the pigeon in Skinners' box , the player tries to figure out what behavior to show in order to receive a reward. This behavior is directly controlled by the feedback from the game. In order to progress in the game, certain tasks must be solved, so the game itself becomes the reward for solving the task.

A distinction is made between explicit and implicit learning. Explicit learning occurs when the player is aware at the time of learning that he is learning. In implicit learning, learning is not done directly, but rather while another activity is being performed. The learning is therefore more incidental. In games, a distinction is made between exploratory and problem-solving action. Immersing yourself in the game world is about problem-solving action, only when the player needs information in a situation, exploratory action is used. Implicit learning takes place in the game as long as the person moves subjectively in the game world, and only when the player gets stuck in a situation does he switch to explicit learning for as long as necessary. According to Quandt, Wimmer and Wolling (2008), long phases of explicit learning would not be attractive for players, as they can endanger gaming fun and behavioral persistence. Because of this, care should be taken to use game designs in which the need to switch to explicit learning mode is minimized.

Central entertainment processes

The success and fun of digital games result, among other things, from different mechanisms of the entertainment experience. There are three main maintenance processes:

  • Experience of self-efficacy occurs on the part of the player when an immediate reaction of the game follows the reaction of the player. The player has the feeling of having a direct influence on the game. If the self-efficacy expectation is not met, this can lead to frustration on the part of the player.
  • Tension is created in different ways. On the one hand, it arises from the need for action with which the player is confronted and, on the other hand, from the emotional participation in the media figure that the player embodies. If the following release of tension leads to positive results in the game, there is a strong emotional relief on the part of the player, which can be expressed in pride and increased self-esteem. However, negative results can lead to frustration or disappointment for the player.
  • Experience of life and roles occurs primarily through immersion in the story of the game and through identification with the character. However, these experiences are only possible if the player is able to achieve success over a longer period of time. The player gets the feeling of being in control of the game. This type of exercise of control in the virtual world is the main reason why young people in particular, with their difficulties in the respective age groups, such as the feeling of losing control in a social context, show such enthusiasm for digital games.

It must be noted that each player approaches a game with a different degree of interest or ambition, which in turn leads to different behavior during the course of the game. End of the game take a turn that creates a certain situation. The player evaluates this situation and then decides on another move. The play is either accepted as correct, so that the player feels positively confirmed, or declared as wrong, which increases the player's ambition and tempts him to try again. This cycle of trial-and-error -Prinzips (ger .: trial-and-error ) is run through several times, as a rule, until the player the desired competence reaches.

Specific didactic methods

Digital learning games differ from traditional learning games and non-game-based e-learning in particular in that they try to use motivational methods from digital entertainment games in order to pursue learning goals (cf.). For example, they often use a story (see.) Or para-social relationships between players and NPCs (non-player character, non-player character ) (see.) To energize learning activities. Another difference that distinguishes digital learning games from e-learning is that the focus here is mainly on the game experience, while in e-learning the greater importance is attributed to the content learned.

Due to the numerous features that distinguish common and isolated learning, a didactic-methodical distinction can be made between digital games that are geared towards the individual learner and those that support learning in groups (online learning games) (see Pivec, Koubek & Dondi 2004).

Approaches to the integration of digital learning games

According to Van Eck, three different approaches for integrating digital games into the learning process can be cited:

  1. Learners or students design the game themselves. As the learning game is developed by the learners themselves, they learn the content automatically.
  2. The use of digital games specifically designed for learning.
  3. The use of commercial digital games that were not originally designed as educational games.

Positive effects of digital learning games

Digital educational games are becoming increasingly popular. This is because more and more research is being carried out on digital educational games and the popularity of digital games is increasing in general. Children today become familiar with the relevant technologies early on as they grow up in a digitally oriented society. Some researchers assume that their way of thinking and information processing has changed and that they need to be motivated in different ways. The communication of learning content must therefore be adapted and this can be done, for example, through the use of digital games. The main reason for the increasing success can, however, be traced back to the associated positive effects.

Through digital learning games, users learn to absorb different information, to cooperate with others, to expand social and cultural boundaries, to become more self-confident, to develop strategies and to solve complex problems. You will learn to recognize information from many different sources and to draw the most important conclusions from them in order to be able to make quick decisions. As a result, gaming develops into a process that is constructive and active and that is self-controlled by the user. This type of self-directed learning can also be used for personal development, for example by increasing the player's self-confidence. These properties are prerequisites for learning by means of digital educational games to be particularly sustainable.

Within the game world, digital learning games are particularly effective learning environments. Repeated execution, including experiences of success and failure in one's own trading and increasing levels of difficulty, can be found in digital learning games and are helpful for promoting learning.

Architecture of a digital educational game

As research into digital educational games has progressed, a number of principles have emerged that are repeatedly cited as beneficial or helpful for good design. There are many different approaches, but also some overlaps between the results of the research groups.

Key elements & principles

In his conference contribution on the architecture of digital learning games, Hu collects identified elements from previous research and comes up with the following aspects:

“Fascinating, Vivid, Immersive, Motivation, Challenge, Curiosity, Control, Competition, Metaphor, Scenario, Narrative, Simulation, Tutor, Tutorial, Questioning, Imitation, Drill, Building, Manipulation, Observation, Task, Exam, Puzzle, Feedback, Reward , Score, Punishment, ... ”

Fisch cites as examples of factors that influence the effectiveness of an educational game, age appropriateness, the ease of use of the interface and successful integration of the learning content into the game. The last point is reached when, on the one hand, a suitable medium is chosen for the learning topic and the learning content is placed in the "heart of the game" and, on the other hand, supportive feedback and information structures are in place so that the player shows the desired real-world behavior and thinks accordingly .

Elements that make an educational game effective can be found at Prensky . According to him, the strengths of a digital educational game lie in the following aspects:

  • Generating a high level of intrinsic motivation
  • Specification of clear goals and rules
  • Providing a rich yet enjoyable context
  • Integration of a "gripping" storyline with elements of surprise
  • Give immediate feedback
  • high level of interactivity, challenge and competition

According to Hu:

  • Representation of the learning object through suitable game elements
  • Giving the player good assignments to "strive" for
  • Provision of adequate, interactive situations that the player can experience
  • Clear giving of feedback on actions

The role of the genre

Hu also points out that different genres are best suited depending on the type of content being taught. Thus, Adventure Games , for example, well adapted to convey factual knowledge, judgment or information about processes, while simulations rather serve the Declaration of classifications and theories.

Examples of carefully selecting a genre or game type to match the learning content can be as follows:

Learning content activity genre
Facts: laws, regulations ... Questions, memories, exercises, associations Game show competitions, index card principle, donkey bridges
logical thinking: strategic and tactical thinking, QA Problems, examples mystery
Systems: e.g. B. healthcare, markets, production ... Understand principles, staggered tasks Simulation games
Communication: appropriate language, participation ... Imitation, practice, training Role plays, reflex games
Observe: moods, work ethic, inefficiencies, problems Observe, feedback Concentration games, adventure games
... ... ...

Problems and ambiguities

On the one hand, the positive effects of digital learning games are offset by a number of problems and ambiguities in their practical use. The problem here is that the combination of game and content often does not form a harmonious whole. This can be due, for example, to the fact that learners are removed from the games so that they can read new texts or take tests and thus there is no immersion or no intoxication. It is also necessary that a game build on the knowledge and experience of the player so that appropriate challenges can be presented to the player. This significantly increases the likelihood that the user will be fully immersed in the game.

Ganguin and Hoblitz criticize that it is unclear under which conditions the positive effects of educational games occur. For example, a distinction must be made whether the educational game is voluntary or under pressure to learn. Huizinga (2006) formulates this view with the sentence "Commanded play is no longer a game." Ganguin and Hoblitz also emphasize that German educational institutions have tended to neglect the importance of learning games in the past.

It currently remains unclear whether digital educational games will prevail in the future and will stand out due to the increasing popularity of games. The digital educational game comes across z. Sometimes also to harsh criticism, for example by the psychiatrist Manfred Spitzer, who largely denies the learning effects of the digital game with reference to brain physiological examinations and findings and even predicts the fate of “digital dementia” for intensive players. This idea contrasts with the considerations of the equally extreme argumentative psychotherapist Georg Milzner, who contrasts the catchphrase “digital dementia” with that of “digital hysteria”.

The game scientists Siegbert A. Warwitz and Anita Rudolf try to enable their own opinion-making on the meaning and benefit of the didactic use of the game genre by comparing the arguments, facts and opinions of various supporters and opponents. In their opinion, the decisive factor is not the “whether” but the “how” of virtual playing and learning. It is about “the reflected, measured use of the digital learning offer, accompanied by well-trained play teachers”.

Empirical findings on the use of digital learning games

It is assumed that the strategies learned in digital games to solve complex problems can be transferred to real contexts. In this regard, however, the current empirical evidence is heterogeneous. In some cases, only minor effects in terms of increasing problem-solving strategies through digital games could be determined. The share of knowledge that can be transferred to external contexts should also be very limited. Accordingly, a transfer of problem-solving skills learned in digital games to external contexts - for example in school lessons - is not likely. In contrast, other results point to the effectiveness of educational games in terms of knowledge transfer. The heterogeneous evidence is explained by the fact that educational games only enable knowledge transfer if the cognitive processes promoted by the game correspond exactly to those required by the respective external context. For example, it was possible to show that test subjects who were given a prosocial game to play, as a result, displayed more prosocial behavior than subjects who played a neutral or aggressive game. Even when using a diabetes learning game, it could already be shown that players improved more than non-gamers in terms of their self-medication behavior. Similar results could be found for the topic of cancer.

Use of learning games in an academic context: motivation and knowledge acquisition

The assumed property of learning games to promote the intrinsic motivation of learners has already been proven in various studies in the past. In the higher education sector, for example, it can be seen that students are more concerned with the content of courses in which digital learning games have been integrated. The use of educational games in school also shows, in addition to greater learning effects in the area of ​​geography, a higher degree of intrinsic motivation compared to traditional learning environments. For elementary school children, integrating a learning game into instruction design led to better learning outcomes in math and spelling. Similar effects were already evident for the subjects of physics, social studies and history. Overall, the empirical evidence shows the integration of learning games into instruction design as a promising method for improving learning outcomes and motivation.

See also

literature

  • M. Bopp: Didactic Analysis of Digital Games and Game-Based Learning. In: Maja Pivec (Ed.): Affective and Emotional Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction. Game-Based and Innovative Learning Approaches . IOS Press, Amsterdam 2006.
  • M. Bopp: Storytelling as a Motivational Tool in Digital Learning Games. In: T. Hug (Ed.): Didactics of Microlearning. Waxmann, Münster 2007, pp. 261-279.
  • Wolfgang Brezinka: The subject of educational science and the task of educational research. In: W. Brezinka: Educational goals, educational means, educational success. Contributions to a system of educational science. (= Collected Writings / Wolfgang Brezinka. Volume 5). Reinhardt, Munich 1995, pp. 15-42.
  • CTGV (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt): The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. The Jasper Project: Lessons in curriculum, instruction, assessment, and professional development. ´Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ 1997.
  • A. Hoblitz, S. Ganguin: Serious Games - Serious Games? About the problem of games, learning and knowledge transfer. In: Gundolf, S. Freyermuth et al. (Ed.): Serious Games, Exergames, Exerlearning. For the transmedialization and gamification of knowledge transfer. Transcript Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-8376-2166-2 , pp. 165-183.
  • J. Paul Gee: What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy . Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  • H. Jenkins, K. Squire: Harnessing the power of games in education. In: Insight. (3) 1, 2004, pp. 5-33.
  • C. Klimt, P. Vorderer: Lara is my medium. Parasocial interactions with Lara Croft versus favorite film and television character . In P. Rössler, S. Kubisch, V. Gehrau (Ed.): Empirical Perspectives of Reception Research . Reinhard Fischer, Munich 2002, pp. 177–192.
  • C. KlICHT: Computer games as action: dimensions and determinants of the experience of interactive entertainment. Halem, Cologne 2005.
  • M. Meisel: Digital learning games Vdm Verlag Dr. Müller, 2008.
  • Georg Milzner: Digital hysteria. Why computers neither make our children stupid nor sick, Weinheim 2016.
  • M. Pivec, A. Koubek, C. Dondi (Eds.): Guidelines for Game-Based Learning. Pabst, Lengerich et al. 2004.
  • M. Prensky: Digital Game Based Learning. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001.
  • T. Quandt, J. Wimmer, J. Wolling (eds.): The computer players : studies on the use of computer games . VS, Wiesbaden 2008.
  • Manfred Spitzer : Digital dementia. How we drive ourselves and our children crazy. Droemer Knaur, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-426-27603-7 .
  • KD Squire: Sid Meier's Civilization III. In: Simulations and Gaming. 35 (1), 2004, pp. 135-140.
  • Siegbert A. Warwitz , Anita Rudolf: Immerse yourself in virtual worlds while playing - electronic games , In: This .: From the sense of playing. Reflections and game ideas. 4th edition, Baltmannsweiler 2016, ISBN 978-3-8340-1664-5 . Pp. 100-107.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e Marc Prensky: Digital game-based learning. In: Computers in Entertainment . 2003, p. 21 , doi : 10.1145 / 950566.950596 .
  2. ↑ a b B. Hofmann, HJ Ulrich: Split screen - separate worlds? Pedagogy and education concepts . Munich 2009, p. 145-152 .
  3. ↑ Minecraft - Popular as a school subject in Sweden - News on PlayNation.de . In: PlayNation.de . ( playnation.de [accessed June 27, 2017]).
  4. ↑ a b c d e R. Van Eck: Digital game-based learning: It's not just the digital natives who are restless. tape 41 , no. 2 . EDUCAUSE review.
  5. ^ K. Kiili: Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. In: The Internet and higher education . tape 8 , no. 1 , 2005, ISSN  1096-7516 , p. 13-24 .
  6. ↑ a b c Michael Kerres, Mark Bormann, Marcel Vervenne: Didactic conception of serious games: for linking games and learning opportunities . In: MedienPädagogik: Journal for Theory and Practice of Media Education . No. 00 , August 25, 2009, ISSN  1424-3636 , p. 1–16 , doi : 10.21240 / mpaed / 00 / 2009.08.25.X ( medienpaed.com [accessed June 27, 2017]).
  7. ↑ Thorsten Quandt, Jeffrey Wimmer, Jens Wolling: The computer players : studies on the use of computer games . Springer-Verlag, 2008, ISBN 978-3-531-15085-7 ( google.de [accessed on June 28, 2017]).
  8. ↑ Sandra Schön, Martin Ebner: Textbook for learning and teaching with technologies . 2nd Edition. epubli, 2013, ISBN 978-3-8442-6594-1 ( google.de [accessed on June 28, 2017]).
  9. ^ A b Matthias Bopp: Storytelling as a Motivational Tool in Digital Learning Games . In: Theo Hug (Ed.): Didactics of Microlearning . Waxmann, Münster 2007, p. 261-279 .
  10. ↑ Christoph Klektiven, Peter Vorderer: "Lara is my medium". Parasocial interactions with Lara Croft versus favorite film and television character . In: P. Rössler, S. Kubisch, V. Gehrau (Ed.): Empirical Perspectives of Reception Research . Fischer, Munich 2002, p. 177-192 .
  11. ^ Kurt Squire: Game-based learning: Present and future state of the field . University of Wisconsin-Madison Press, Madison 2005.
  12. ↑ Kowit Rapeepisarn, Kok Wai Wong, Chun Che Fung, Myint Swe Khine: The Relationship between Game Genres, Learning Techniques and Learning Styles in Educational Computer Games . In: Zhigeng Pan, Xiaopeng Zhang, Abdennour El Rhalibi, Woontack Woo, Yi Li (eds.): Technologies for E-Learning and Digital Entertainment . Springer, Berlin 2008, doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-540-69736-7 .
  13. ^ A b Maja Pivec: Play and learn: Potentials of game-based learning. In: British Journal of Educational Technology . tape 38 , no. 3 , 2007, p. 387-393 .
  14. ↑ Christoph Meier, Sabine Seufert: Game-based learning. Experience with and perspectives for digital learning games in vocational education . In: Fundamentals of Continuing Education. Practical aids . Berlin 2003.
  15. ↑ a b c d Wenfeng Hu: A common software architecture for educational games . In: Xiaopeng Zhang, Shaochun Zhong, Zhigeng Pan, Kevin Wong, Ruwei Yun (eds.): Entertainment for Education. Digital Techniques and Systems . Springer, Berlin 2010, p. 405-416 .
  16. ↑ Shalom M. Fisch: Making educational computer games educational . In: Proceedings of the 2005 conference on Interaction design and children . ACM, New York 2005, pp. 56-61 .
  17. ↑ Sonja Ganguin, Anna Hoblitz: serious games - serious games? About the problem of games, learning and knowledge transfer . In: Gundolf F. Freyermuth, Lisa Gotto, Fabian Wallenfels (eds.): Serious Games, Exergames, Exerlearning. For the transmedialization and gamification of knowledge transfer . Transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, p. 165-180 .
  18. ^ Johan Huizinga: Homo Ludens: From the origin of culture in play . 20th edition. Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Hamburg 2006.
  19. ↑ Manfred Spitzer: Digital dementia. How we drive ourselves and our children crazy . Munich 2012
  20. ↑ George Milzner: Digital hysteria. Why computers don't make our children stupid or sick . Weinheim 2016
  21. ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz, A. Rudolf: Immerse yourself in virtual worlds by playing - electronic games , In: This .: From the sense of playing. Reflections and game ideas . 4th edition, Schneider, Baltmannsweiler 2016, pp. 100-107
  22. ↑ ibid, p. 102
  23. ^ David D. Curtis, Mike J. Lawson: Computer adventure games as problem-solving environments . In: International Education Journal . tape 3 , no. 1 , 2002, p. 43-56 .
  24. ↑ Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen: Third generation educational use of computer games . In: Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia . tape 16 , no. 3 , 2007, p. 263-281 .
  25. ↑ Sigmund Tobias, JD Fletcher (Ed.): Computer games and instruction . Information Age Publishing, Charlotte 2011, ISBN 978-1-61735-409-0 .
  26. ↑ Tobias Greitemeyer, Silvia Osswald: Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior . In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . tape 98 , no. 2 , 2010, p. 211-221 .
  27. ^ SJ Brown, DA Lieberman, BA Gemeny, YC Fan, DM Wilson, DJ Pasta: Educational video game for juvenile diabetes: Results of a controlled trial . In: Medical Informatics . tape 22 , no. 1 , 1997, p. 77-89 .
  28. ↑ Pamela M. Kato, Steve W. Cole, Andrew S. Bradlyn, Brad H. Pollock: A video game improves behavioral outcomes in adolescents and young adults with cancer: A randomized trial . In: Pediatrics . tape 122 , no. 2 , 2008, p. 305-317 .
  29. ↑ Brianno D. Coller, David K. Shernoff: Video game-based education in mechanical engineering: A look at student engagement . In: International Journal of Engineering Education . tape 25 , no. 2 , 2009, p. 308-317 .
  30. ↑ Hakan Tüzün, Meryem Yilmaz-Soylu, Türkan Karakus, Yavuz Inal, Gonca Kizilkaya: The effects of computer games on primary school students' achievement and motivation in geography learning . In: Computers & Education . tape 52 , no. 1 , 2009, p. 68-77 .
  31. ↑ Ricardo Rosas, Miguel Nussbaum, Patricio Cumsille, Vladimir Marianov, Mónica Correa, Patricia Flores, Valeska Grau, Francisca Lagos, Ximena López, Verónica López, Patricio Rodriguez, Marcela Salinas: Beyond Nintendo: design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students . In: Computers & Education . tape 40 , no. 1 , 2003, p. 71-94 .
  32. ↑ Kurt Squire, Mike Barnett, Jamillah M. Grant, Thomas Higginbotham: Electromagnetism supercharged! Learning physics with digital simulation games . In: ICLS '04 Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Learning sciences . International Society of the Learning Sciences, Santa Monica 2004, pp. 513-520 .
  33. ↑ Tasha book, Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen: The Learning Effects of Global Conflicts: Palestine . In: Media @ Terra Conference Proceedings . 2006.
  34. ↑ Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen: Beyond edutainment: Exploring the educational potential of computer games . Lulu Press, London 2011, ISBN 978-1-4467-6865-5 .
  35. ↑ Pieter Wouters, Christoph van Nimwegen, Herre van Oostendorp, Erik K. van der Spek: A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games . In: Journal of Educational Psychology . tape 105 , no. 2 , 2013, p. 249-265 .