An Inquiry into the Principles of Morality
An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals ( German An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals ) is a monograph by David Hume , a prominent Scottish philosophers of the Enlightenment . Hume wrote the work in 1751 as a revision of his first work A Treatise of Human Nature .
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The virtues
There is a basic moral attitude in humans, which raises the question of whether there are universally valid moral principles. To find out, Hume chooses the experiment to explore the roots of morality - that is, mind or feeling .
In every language in the world there are words that express kindness, kindness or gratitude from a person. These terms have a positive connotation in every culture . People with these characteristics are useful to a society , which is why these characteristics are considered “good” - that is, moral.
Hume's experimental approach should be summarized here using the virtue of " justice " as an example:
The virtue of justice can be traced back to the social good. Two different situations are assumed for this, in which justice does not play a role:
- All people can meet their needs without any restriction; justice is not necessary here, since it is possible for everyone to satisfy their wishes at any time.
- In a situation in which no one can satisfy their needs without obstacles, justice also does not play a role, since everyone is controlled by their instinct for self-preservation, and so the well-being of others no longer plays a role.
In both situations, justice is completely insignificant because it is not useful for the respective society. In a real society, however, justice is useful and is therefore also considered a virtue.
According to Hume, however, justice is not equality. Justice also includes the right to property, as there cannot be complete equality for all people. Even if all goods were fairly distributed, some people would be superior to others because of their abilities. Therefore, the establishment of a society in which everyone is equal is not conducive to this society: the more capable people lack the incentive to use their skills for the good of the community.
Civil society
If all people behaved in a virtuous way, a political order would be superfluous. Since not all people behave virtuously in a real society, the government's legitimacy lies in creating the benefits of virtue through its actions.
The laws and rules created by the political order are just as binding for society as virtues, since they are beneficial for the whole. There are written and unwritten rules for every situation, without which a society could not survive.
Useful and pleasant virtues
Prudence , diligence , thrift , consideration and order are just some of the virtues that prove useful for a society.
Pleasant - that is, not useful, but positive - virtues are, for example, cheerfulness , courage or politeness .
Most of the artificially devised virtues are neither beneficial to society nor are they perceived as pleasant, for example a monastic rule of the monastery or celibacy .
In order to recognize true virtues, according to Hume, one therefore needs both understanding and feeling. The mind decides about the usefulness, the feeling and the inclination of the person to do good, make the morally correct decision.
Structure and style
The work consists of two parts: the actual essay and an appendix. Although it is a revision of his first work, the text is erratic, unsystematic and provided with many digressions. A frequent stylistic device of this essay is the rhetorical question with which the author tries to actively involve his reader in the study of morality.
Possibilities of interpretation
Morality is based on concrete experiences of a person or a society, not on reason . Thus, it is no longer religion that determines morality, but society: everything that is useful for a society is also morally good. Consequently, only that which is good in religion is that which is useful for society.
In contrast to Descartes or Kant , Hume takes the view that moral attitudes develop over time.
In addition, Hume foresees the effects of a possible socialism in his work : "In a system in which everyone is equal, poverty spreads, since there is no longer any incentive for capable people to perform."
History of origin
Hume's study of the principles of morality appeared in London in 1751 . He himself considered this work his best publication.
Hume began work on this work in 1749 and finished it within a year. The parts printed in the appendix in today's editions were not yet removed from the actual essay when it was first published. After several revisions by Hume, the work appeared for the first time posthumously in 1777 in the version known today.
Impact history
Hume's essay style was viewed as exemplary by many philosophers, such as Kant.
The assertion that “moral is only what is useful” anticipates utilitarianism . But Adam Smith and Immanuel Kant also resorted to Hume's work.
German translation: An inquiry into the principles of morality. Stuttgart (Reclam) 2012.
