Relative added value

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The production of relative surplus value referred to in the critique of political economy of Karl Marx , the increase in the rate of surplus value by the so-called. Real subsumption of labor to capital . This real subsumption presupposes the formal subsumption (cf. absolute surplus value ) and completes it by revolutionizing the work process itself and making it more productive. If as a result the value of the commodities that are considered necessary for labor power to reproduce falls, the value of labor power falls. Then the necessary working hours decrease and the overtime increases.

principle

According to Marx, the value of labor is equal to the amount of food that is considered necessary for the average labor to reproduce. The word food is to be understood in a broad sense: it does not only mean food, clothing and housing, but can also include other things. It is not only about what is necessary to maintain an individual, but also what is necessary to maintain a working class family, because the class as such must be able to reproduce; this also includes the costs of education for the next generation. What is considered necessary depends on historical and moral factors. It can vary from country to country and over time. The scope also depends on what the respective working class claims to be necessary. The wage or price of the labor can in principle also be above or below the value. The price can indicate not only the value but also a momentary surplus or shortage of manpower and fall or rise accordingly. But the value of labor only changes when the amount of necessary food or its value changes.

By increasing the productive power of labor in those areas which are relevant to the production of the means of subsistence of the workers, the capitalists lower the value of this means of subsistence and thus the value of labor power. Relevant areas include those industries that produce the common foods concerned or create the products that can replace the former; furthermore, it also includes those industries that provide the means of production or raw materials or machines by means of which the food is produced. Marx names cooperation, division of labor and the use of machinery or automation as means that serve to increase the productivity of labor.

If a capitalist extended working hours, that would understandably bring him advantages or greater added value. In the case of an increase in productivity, it is less obvious at first. If z. For example, if a table producer increases the productivity of his workers, tables become cheaper, but only insofar as tables are part of the necessary provisions would the value of the labor force decrease. The cheaper labor would be relatively small and it would take a long time to get cheaper. Marx therefore asks what drives the individual capitalist.

The answer lies in the category of extra surplus value : by increasing the productivity of his workers, the individual capitalist can reduce the individual value of his products and sell them at the usual social value - the difference is the extra surplus value; when the new production method has generalized, the extra value has disappeared. Then the socially necessary working time to produce the type of goods in question has decreased. Your value will decrease. Only when this commodity is one of those foods that are considered necessary for the labor force to reproduce does the value of the labor force decrease. This enables the rate of surplus value to be increased . The worker needs less time to create a value equivalent of his wages. If the wages fall, the surplus value increases.

The capitalist, who first increases the productive power, can produce the usual quantity of commodities with less labor or can expand production. The former is unlikely. The introduction of new machines often only pays off if more is produced. He will also try to take advantage of his temporary monopoly in order to achieve as much extra value as possible. After all, the capitalist strives to wear out his machine as quickly as possible before it is devalued by a cheaper variant of the same type or by new, better machines. In order to be able to sell the larger quantity of goods, he must find a larger sales market or else lower the price; he will then sell below the social value but above the individual value of the commodity. In this case he puts his competitors under pressure: they also have to increase productivity, otherwise they can make less profit. The laws that are inherent in capital, such as the lengthening of the working day and the increase in productive power, prevail over the individual capitalist as a practical constraint or competitive pressure.

Simple calculation example

One can construct a very simplified example based on the 15th chapter of the first volume of Das Kapital to illustrate the facts. Assume that the productivity of work doubles suddenly in all industries, while other circumstances remain the same, such as the length of the working day and the intensity of the work. Then twice as many goods are produced in the same time. The value of the previous quantity of goods would be equal to the value of the increased quantity of goods. Each commodity would be worth half as much as before.

Let us also assume that a worker, before doubling his productive power per day, created a value of 50 in his necessary labor time and an surplus value of 50 in the time of surplus work. The increase in productivity halved the value of the necessary means of subsistence. The value of labor is now 25. The capitalist could reduce wages from 50 to 25. The real purchasing power of wages would be the same as before. The surplus value of the capitalist could accordingly be increased by 25 and rise to 75. The worker now creates a value equivalent of his wages in a shorter time and the overtime is extended accordingly.

meaning

Standard of living of the working class

The workers could use the increase in productivity to raise their standard of living. If they are strongly enough organized, then they can prevent the wages from falling slightly above the new value of the labor force. In our example this would mean that the wage is not reduced from 50 to 25, but only to 40, for example. The wage of the worker would have fallen from 50 to 40 in nominal terms, but the worker can already buy the same amount of goods at 25 as before increasing productivity. So his real wages have risen.

crisis

See main article : Marxist Crisis Theory

There is no coherent crisis theory in Das Kapital , but remarks on the subject are scattered throughout the work. Important arguments are independent of the law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall . According to Marx, the capitalist mode of production necessarily tends towards crises. It separates what necessarily belongs together, namely production and consumption. It tends to systematically expand production and at the same time limit consumption.

The increase in relative added value is a key factor that favors crises. In the Principle section it was mentioned that the increase in productive power is very likely to go hand in hand with the expansion of production. If capitalists compete with each other, then they must try to profit maximize. This is the only way you can ensure that you have enough funds to invest and modernize your company. This logic requires that the capitalists try to minimize labor costs, that is, to employ as few workers as possible and to pay them as little as possible. That limits the demand of the working class. Furthermore, the capitalists' demand for the means of production is also restricted. They only buy means of production when they expect a profit from it and when this hoped for profit is greater than the profit that the capitalist expects from other uses of his capital, such as B. as interest-bearing capital .

If production and consumption diverge long enough, overproduction and overaccumulation occur. There is then too much capital that cannot be realized: too much commodity capital that cannot be sold, too much productive capital that is superfluous, and too much money capital that cannot be realized. The goal of the capitalist mode of production , capital utilization or profit maximization, is severely impaired. Many people become unemployed and companies go under.

From extra added value to extra profit

The expression extra added value already appears in the first volume of Das Kapital , in which Marx primarily deals with the production process. In the third volume he can assume the insight that the production and circulation of capital form a unit and deals with the overall process. He tries to grasp the categories he has developed up to then more concretely in order to approach empirical capital. He distinguishes the concept of surplus value from the concept of profit , which is associated with a mystification , and accordingly the rate of surplus value from the rate of profit . The fact that the individual capitals compete with one another means that the individual rates of profit tend to equalize each other to form a general rate of profit . The cost price of a commodity, which includes the cost of constant and variable capital per unit of commodity, multiplied by the average rate of profit gives the average profit.

The lowering of the cost of the elements of constant capital , the economical use thereof, or a more rapid turnover of capital can serve to ensure that a capitalist increases his rate of profit. The main source of value-added production, however, is that wage laborers are exploited . The two main ways to increase exploitation are to increase working hours and to increase the productivity of work.

A capitalist can, under certain circumstances, achieve an above-average profit, the so-called extra profit or surplus profit. As mentioned in the first volume, this concerns a capitalist who is the first to introduce an invention into production, produces cheaper than his competitors, but sells at market price. Until the invention is generalized, he can make extra profit. Foreign trade offers another option. A capitalist could export goods beyond their value and undercut the price of competitors in the importing country who are more difficult to produce. Furthermore, a capitalist could have natural resources with which to increase the productivity of his workers and monopolize those resources. As an example, Marx cites a capitalist who uses a waterfall and can thus produce cheaper than his competitors who rely on steam technology. 

However, surplus profit can also be achieved by the capitalist selling a product that requires a limited area of ​​nature, as in the case of a rare wine. The price for this depends only on the purchasing power and how much the buyers value the product in question. The price does not depend on the actual value of the product .

Fordism as a historical example

The automobile manufacturer Henry Ford (1863-1947) introduced a new production method for its Model T. Among other things, this was characterized by a high division of labor or Taylorism and standardized mass production on the assembly line. This increased the productivity of labor enormously and made Ford's cars cheaper so that more people could buy cars. To reduce turnover , Ford increased the wages of its workers.

This mode of production was expanded to include other industries that produced everyday working class food, such as refrigerators, washing machines, radios, televisions, etc. This resulted in much of the working class food being produced in a capitalist way and being heavily discounted. The standard of living of the working class could thus rise. The value of labor decreased and real wages increased, but so did profits.

Special drives for increasing productivity

Cooperation, division of labor, machinery

Cooperation means that several workers work together and side by side according to a plan, be it in a process or in interconnected processes. This can increase productivity in several ways. If workers use the means of production together, they are consumed less and the product becomes cheaper. For example, if a weaver employs 20 people, this requires less space than if 10 weavers each employ two people. Furthermore, a collective forms a new social productive force that can do things that a single worker would not be able to do on his own. One worker alone cannot carry a tree trunk, but a sufficiently large collective can. Furthermore, it is human nature that rivalries tend to develop and workers compete with one another so that individuals work more productively.

In the case of a division of labor in a manufacture, a complex work process is broken down. Marx differentiates between two types of reorganization of crafts, skills and tools: either craftsmen of different types of crafts cooperate under one capitalist or several craftsmen of one type of craft work together for one capitalist, specializing in partial functions. In both cases, part-workers are created who limit themselves to certain tasks and tools in the long term; they practice it and thus become more skillful and faster. Furthermore, breaks between individual activities of a work process are reduced and parts of the work process can now take place simultaneously. The division of labor in a manufactory also promotes the division of labor within society, so that different trades are differentiated. The world market and colonial system reinforce this development.

The most important factor for increasing productivity is the introduction of machines and machine systems. A machine can operate more tools at the same time than a craftsman. Machines play little or no role in manufacture, but are characteristic of the factory. In a factory, apart from the activities that have not yet been mechanized, there is usually only monitoring, the correction of errors, repairs, etc. Once skillful work is taken over by machines and the worker becomes an appendage to the machine, which makes him manifest of capital dominates. While the intellectual power of the workers is reduced in this respect, science becomes an independent productive force which stands alongside the worker and is in the service of capital; Through the dequalification, the production process can be reorganized more easily than in the manufacture by means of science.

The increase in productivity also depends on the level of wages. A specific feature of the machinery is that it costs the capitalists money. It will only be introduced if the increase in prices caused by its purchase can be overcompensated by reducing unit labor costs accordingly. If the wages are relatively high, it is more worthwhile to introduce a new machine.

Concentration, centralization, credit system

Concentration, centralization and the credit system push the increase in productive power. Concentration refers to the process in which capital accumulates . In the same circumstances, this means that the capitalist concerned concentrates more labor and means of production under his command. The total social capital accumulates by accumulating the individual capitals of which it is composed. Under centralization Marx understands the process, fuse together in the autonomous capital. It doesn't matter whether this happens through a hostile takeover or through the formation of a stock corporation. Larger capitals can more easily invest in new means of production and thus increase productivity. Thanks to the credit system, masses of capital can be bundled and moved relatively flexibly between sectors; a capitalist can increase his available capital, accumulate it more quickly and also invest in new, better means of production.

These processes are closely related. The concentration allows partial capitals to split off from a capital complex and become independent. This increases competition and the material that can be centralized. Centralization is primarily driven by competition and the credit system. The larger capitals beat the smaller ones in price, since they have better means of production with higher productivity. With the development of the capitalist mode of production, the capital required to run an enterprise under normal conditions increases. Smaller capitals are therefore looking for niches in which less start-up capital is required. The competition is increasing there. Some competitors will go under and others will be bought by their competitors. In the long term, only a few capitals will remain in the former niche. In the competitive struggle, the credit system becomes a weapon that allows faster accumulation.

nature

In every form of society, people have to transform natural substances according to their needs in order to create use values. Nature and work are therefore necessary conditions for the material wealth of a society.

Marx viewed nature as a fundamental factor on which the productive power of labor depends. With regard to the natural conditions of productivity, Marx distinguishes man's nature from the nature that surrounds him. He divides these external factors into those that provide food, such as fertile soil or waters rich in fish, and those resources that represent means of work, such as waterfalls, navigable rivers, wood, metals or coal. In early stages of culture, the former are more important and in later stages of culture the latter are more decisive.

When overtime can begin depends on the abundance of nature . However, if nature is too lush, man does not have to learn to control it. The temperate climate zone is the "motherland of capital". A soil that produces diverse products forms the natural basis for the division of labor; For the development of industry, the most important factor is that people must jointly control natural forces, for example by building canals for agriculture. Science and technology make it possible to use natural resources in the production process to increase productivity.

Parallels to Schumpeter's business cycle theory

In his business cycle theory, Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883–1950) praised Marx's basic idea that the economy develops from its internal dynamics. According to the economic historian and student Schumpeter Eduard März (1908–1987), Marx's idea can be found in Schumpeter's work, according to which the capitalist mode of production tends from its inherent dynamics to technical innovations that allow the pioneer a temporary monopoly and corresponding profits.

According to Schumpeter, the entrepreneurial function consists only in introducing innovations. This applies above all to new products, new methods of production, new sources of raw materials or sales markets, or a reorganization of industrial units, such as by manufacturing or breaking a monopoly position. The innovation allows an entrepreneur to realize an entrepreneurial profit. An entrepreneur who is the first to introduce an innovation with which he produces cheaper than his competitors can sell at market price. But this profit is again made controversial for him: on the one hand by imitators who abolish his monopoly position, on the other hand by increased costs of the corresponding production factors, since the demand for them increases. Schumpeter regarded banks as one of the main levers of this development, which create funds ex nihilo that are not opposed by any supply of goods; in this way they can provide the entrepreneur with capital for his innovation.

To the objection that Marx only knew the cost-saving new mode of production as an innovation, Eduard März replies that several types of innovation were implicitly contained in Marx's early work or in passages of the Communist Party's manifesto , such as new goods, new modes of production, new sources of raw materials and markets .

The theoretical approaches of Marx and Schumpeter differ in some fundamental ways. Schumpeter criticizes Marx's labor theory of value and exploitation theory. These are fundamental to Marx's concept of capital , according to which capital is understood as a utilizing value and is based on the exploitation of wage workers. Schumpeter's concept of capital is monetary and purely functional. Capital is a sum of means of payment with which the entrepreneur buys those goods on the market that he needs for his innovation; Capital becomes an instrument of domination over these goods. The goods themselves are not capital. In Marx's case, on the other hand, the means of production and labor are understood as productive capital in the sphere of industrial capital . Schumpeter emphasized the entrepreneur's psychological motives such as the will to win or the endeavor to found a dynasty as a motor for innovation. Although Marx probably would not have denied this aspect, he emphasized the practical necessity of competition, which compels the capitalist to accumulate and technical innovation, since otherwise he perishes as a capitalist.

See also

literature

  • Karl Marx: Capital. MEW 23, especially pp. 331-531.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 90 .
  2. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 91 .
  3. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 91 .
  4. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 334 : “In order to lower the value of labor power, the increase in productive power must take hold of branches of industry whose products determine the value of labor power, that is, either belong to the environment of habitual means of subsistence or can replace them. The value of a commodity, however, is not only determined by the quantity of labor which gives it its ultimate form, but also by the quantity of labor contained in its means of production. For example, the value of a boot not only through the shoemaker's work, but also through the value of leather, pitch, wire, etc. Increase in productive power and corresponding reduction in the price of commodities in industries, which include the material elements of constant capital, the work equipment and the work material, to supply the necessary foodstuffs, thus also lower the value of labor. On the other hand, in branches of production which neither supply the necessary food nor the means of production for their production, the increased productive power leaves the value of labor unaffected. "
  5. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 103-104 .
  6. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, p. 173 .
  7. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 104 .
  8. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 336-337 .
  9. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 104-105 .
  10. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 105-106 .
  11. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 429-430 : “The machine produces relative surplus value, not only by directly devaluing the labor force and indirectly making it cheaper by making the goods used for its reproduction cheaper, but also by increasing the labor used by the machine owner when it is first sporadically introduced Labor transforms, increases the social value of the machine product above its individual value and thus enables the capitalist to replace the daily value of labor power with a smaller part of the value of the daily product. During this transition period, in which machine operation remains a kind of monopoly, the profits are therefore extraordinary, and the capitalist seeks to exploit this "first period of young love" as thoroughly as possible by lengthening the working day as much as possible. "
  12. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 426-427 : “In addition to material wear and tear, the machine is also subject to moral wear, so to speak. It loses exchange value to the extent that either machines of the same construction can be reproduced more cheaply or better machines compete alongside it. In both cases its value, however young and vigorous it may otherwise be, is no longer determined by the actually objectified in itself, but by the labor time necessary for its own reproduction or for the reproduction of the better machine. It is therefore more or less devalued. The shorter the period in which their total value is reproduced, the less the danger of moral wear and tear, and the longer the working day, the shorter that period. When machinery was first introduced into any branch of production, new methods of cheaper reproduction and improvement followed, which took hold not only of individual parts or apparatus, but of their entire construction. This particular motive for extending the working day is therefore most acute in the first period of life. "
  13. ^ Karl Marx: Das Kapital. Criticism of the political economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 336 : “So in order to sell the product of a working day, it needs double sales or a twice larger market. All other things being equal, his commodities only conquer a larger market space by contracting their prices. He will therefore sell them above their individual value, but below their social value, say re 10 d. the piece. So he still beats an extra value of 1 d on every single piece. out. This increase in surplus value takes place for him, whether or not his commodity belongs to the environment of the necessary means of subsistence and therefore has a decisive influence on the general value of labor power. Apart from the last circumstance, there is therefore the motive for every single capitalist to sell the commodity at a lower price by increasing the productivity of labor. "
  14. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 106-107 .
  15. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 545-546 .
  16. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 117-120 .
  17. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 170-171 .
  18. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 171-173 .
  19. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 85 .
  20. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 172 .
  21. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 172-173 .
  22. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 173 .
  23. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 140 .
  24. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 141-142 .
  25. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 144-145 .
  26. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 143 .
  27. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 149 .
  28. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. Third volume. Book III: The Overall Process of Capitalist Production . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 25 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1964, p. 247–248 : “Capitals invested in foreign trade can yield a higher rate of profit, because here, firstly, there is competition with commodities which are produced by other countries with less production facilities, so that the more advanced country sells its commodities above their value, although cheaper than the competing countries. Insofar as the labor of the advanced country is valued here as labor of higher specific weight, the rate of profit rises because labor that is not paid as qualitatively higher is sold as such. The same relation can take place against the country to which goods are sent and from which goods are obtained; namely, that this gives more objectified work in kind than it receives, and that it still receives the commodity more cheaply than it could produce it itself. Just like the manufacturer, who uses a new invention before it is generalized, sells it more cheaply than his competitors, and yet sells it above the individual value of his commodity, that is, uses the specifically higher productive power of the labor he has employed as surplus labor. He realizes a surplus profit. "
  29. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. Third volume. Book III: The Overall Process of Capitalist Production . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 25 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1964, p. 653-661 .
  30. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. Third volume. Book III: The Overall Process of Capitalist Production . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 25 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1964, p. 783 : “When we speak of a monopoly price, we mean a price that is only determined by the buyer's willingness to buy and solvency, regardless of the price determined by the general price of production or by the price determined by the value of the products. A vineyard that produces wine of extraordinary quality, wine that can only be produced in relatively small quantities, bears a monopoly price. As a result of this monopoly price, the surplus of which over the value of the product is determined solely by the wealth and hobby of the distinguished wine drinkers, the wine grower would realize a significant surplus profit. "
  31. ↑ a b c d Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 120 .
  32. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 344 : "The form of work of many who work alongside and with one another in the same production process or in different but related production processes is called cooperation."
  33. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 343-344 .
  34. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, p. 174-175 .
  35. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 345 .
  36. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 345–346 : “Apart from the new power potency, which arises from the amalgamation of many forces into one total force, in most productive work the mere social contact creates a rivalry and its own excitation of the animal spirits, which the individual performance of the individual increase, [...] This is due to the fact that man is by nature, if not, as Aristotle thinks, a political, at least a social animal. "
  37. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, p. 178-179 .
  38. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, p. 179-180 .
  39. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, p. 180 .
  40. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 374 : “Since commodity production and commodity circulation are the general prerequisites of the capitalist mode of production, the division of labor in manufacturing requires a division of labor within society that has already matured to a certain degree of development. Conversely, the manufacturing division of labor retrospectively develops and multiplies that social division of labor. With the differentiation of the working instruments, the trades that produce these instruments are becoming more and more different. If the manufacturing enterprise takes up a trade that was previously connected with others as a main or ancillary trade and was carried out by the same producer, divorce and mutual independence take place immediately. If he seizes a particular stage of production of a commodity, its various stages of production are transformed into various independent trades. It has already been indicated that where the work is a merely mechanically assembled whole of partial products, the partial work can again become independent crafts. In order to carry out the division of labor more perfectly within a manufacture, the same branch of production is split into different, sometimes completely new, factories, depending on the difference in its raw materials or the different forms that the same raw material can receive. "
  41. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 374–375 : "The manufacturing period provides rich material for the division of labor within society, the expansion of the world market and the colonial system, which are part of their general conditions of existence."
  42. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 108-109 .
  43. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 109-110 .
  44. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 110-112 .
  45. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 112-113 .
  46. ↑ a b c Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 126 .
  47. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 656 : "[...] centralization takes place on the violent path of annexation - where certain capitals become so predominant centers of gravity for others that they break their individual cohesion and then attract the individual fragments - or a group merges already educated, resp. in the formation of conceptual capitals by means of the smoother process of the formation of stock corporations [...] "
  48. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 166-167 .
  49. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 653–654 : “Every individual capital is a larger or smaller concentration of means of production with a corresponding command over a larger or smaller army of workers. Every accumulation becomes the means of new accumulation. With the increased mass of wealth functioning as capital, it expands its concentration in the hands of individual capitalists, hence the basis of production on a large scale and of specifically capitalist methods of production. The growth of social capital takes place in the growth of many individual capitals. Assuming all other circumstances remain the same, the individual capitals, and with them the concentration of the means of production, grow in proportion in which they form aliquot parts of the total social capital. At the same time, offshoots tear themselves away from the original capital and function as new, independent capital. Among other things, the division of wealth into capitalist families plays a major role. With the accumulation of capital, the number of capitalists grows more or less. [...] If accumulation is presented on the one hand as a growing concentration of the means of production and the command of labor, on the other hand as a repulsion of many individual capitals from one another. "
  50. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 655 : “To the same extent as capitalist production and accumulation, competition and credit, the two most powerful levers of centralization, develop to the same extent. In addition, the progress of accumulation increases the centralizable material, that is, the individual capital, while the expansion of capitalist production, here the social need, there the technical means of those huge industrial enterprises, the implementation of which is linked to a previous centralization of capital. "
  51. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 654–655 : “The laws of this centralization of capital or the attraction of capital by capital cannot be developed here. A brief actual indication is sufficient. The competition is waged by the cheaper goods. The cheapness of commodities depends, caeteris paribus, on the productivity of labor, but this on the scale of production. The larger capitals therefore beat the smaller ones. It will also be remembered that with the development of the capitalist mode of production, the minimum amount of individual capital required to conduct a business under its normal conditions increases. The smaller capitals, therefore, crowd into spheres of production which big industry has only sporadically or imperfectly seized. The competition is racing here in direct proportion to the number and inversely proportionate to the size of the rival capital. It always ends with the downfall of many smaller capitalists, whose capitals are partly passed into the hand of the victor, partly perish. Apart from this, a completely new power is being formed with capitalist production, the credit system, which in its beginnings stealthily, as a modest aid to accumulation, creeps through invisible threads into the hands of the money that has been split up in larger or smaller masses over the surface of society individual or associated capitalist pulls, but soon becomes a new and terrible weapon in the competitive struggle and is ultimately transformed into an immense social mechanism for the centralization of capital. "
  52. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 57–58 : “[...] In his production man can only proceed like nature itself, ie only change the forms of the substances. Even more. In this work of formation itself he is constantly supported by natural forces. Labor is therefore not the only source of the use values ​​it produces, of material wealth. Work is his father, as William Petty says, and the earth his mother. "
  53. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 54 : “The value of a commodity would therefore remain constant if the working time required for its production were constant. The latter, however, changes with every change in the productive power of labor. The productive power of labor is determined by manifold circumstances, among other things by the average degree of skill of the workers, the stage of development of science and its technological applicability, the social combination of the production process, the extent and effectiveness of the means of production, and by natural conditions. The same quantity of labor is represented, for example, with a favorable season in 8 bushels of wheat, with a less favorable one in only 4. The same quantity of labor supplies more metals in rich than in poor mines, etc. Diamonds are seldom found in the earth's crust, and their finding therefore costs on average a lot of working time. As a result, they represent a lot of work in a small volume. "
  54. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 535 : “Apart from the more or less developed form of social production, the productivity of labor remains tied to natural conditions. They are all traceable to the nature of man himself, like Race etc., and the nature around him. The external natural conditions are economically divided into two large classes, natural abundance of foodstuffs, i.e. soil fertility, waters rich in fish, etc., and natural abundance of resources, such as living water gradients, navigable rivers, wood, metals, coal, etc. In the beginnings of culture, the former at a higher level of development the second type of natural wealth is decisive. Compare, for example, England with India or, in the ancient world, Athens and Corinth with the countries on the banks of the Black Sea. "
  55. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 535 : “The lower the number of absolutely satisfactory natural needs and the greater the natural fertility of the soil and the favorable climate, the lower the working time necessary for the maintenance and reproduction of the producer. The greater the surplus of his work for others over his work for himself can be. "
  56. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital. In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 536 : “Once capitalist production is assumed, under otherwise constant circumstances and given the length of the working day, the amount of surplus labor will vary with the natural conditions of labor, namely also with the fertility of the soil. But it by no means follows that the most fertile soil is the most suitable for the growth of the capitalist mode of production. It assumes that humans rule over nature. Too lavish nature "holds him by her hand like a child on a harness". It does not make his own development a natural necessity. Not the tropical climate with its overgrown vegetation, but the temperate zone is the motherland of capital. "
  57. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 536-537 : “It is not the absolute fertility of the soil, but its differentiation, the diversity of its natural products, which forms the natural basis of the social division of labor and man, through the change in the natural circumstances within which he lives, to multiply himself own needs, skills, work equipment and working methods. The need to socially control a natural force, to manage it, to acquire or tame it through works by human hands on a large scale, plays the most decisive role in the history of industry. For example the water regulation in Egypt5, Lombardy, Holland etc. Or in India, Persia etc., where the overflow through artificial channels not only supplies the ground with the indispensable water, but also with its sludge the mineral fertilizer from the mountains. The secret of the industrial prosperity of Spain and Sicily under Arab rule was the sewer system. "
  58. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 407-408 .
  59. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. XXIII : “At the beginning it was not clear to me what might be obvious to the reader at first glance, namely that this idea and this intention are exactly the same as the idea and the intention of the economic doctrine of Karl Marx Are based. Indeed, what set him apart from the economists of his own time and those who preceded him was precisely a vision of economic evolution as a particular process generated by the economic system itself. In all other respects he only used and adopted the concepts and statements of Ricardian economic theory, but the idea of ​​economic evolution, which he clad in an insignificant Hegelian setting, is entirely his own. "
  60. ^ Eduard March: The theory of economic development by Joseph A. Schumpeter in its relationship to the Marxian system . In: Economy and Society. Economic policy journal of the Chamber for Workers and Salaried Employees for Vienna. 6th year, issue 3 . 1980, p. 260 .
  61. ↑ Kerstin Burmeister: Joseph Alois Schumpeter's ideas of the dynamic entrepreneur . In: Francesca Schinzinger (Ed.): Entrepreneurs and technical progress . Harald Boldt Verlag im R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 1996, p. 25-30 .
  62. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 100-101 .
  63. ^ A b Eduard March: The theory of economic development by Joseph A. Schumpeter in its relationship to the Marxian system . In: Economy and Society. Economic journal of the Chamber for Workers and Salaried Employees for Vienna, 6th year, issue 3 . 1980, p. 256 .
  64. ^ Eduard March: The theory of economic development by Joseph A. Schumpeter in its relationship to the Marxian system . In: Economy and Society. Economic journal of the Chamber for Workers and Salaried Employees for Vienna, 6th year, issue 3 . 1980, p. 256-257 .
  65. ↑ Eduard March: On the genesis of Schumpeter's theory of economic development . In: On Political Economy and Econometrics. Essays in Honor of Oskar Lange . Pergamon Press / PWN-Verlag, Oxford et al. / Warsaw 1969, p. 384–385 (first edition: 1965).
  66. ^ Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels: Manifesto of the Communist Party . Office of the Education Society for Workers by JE Burghard, London 1848, p. 6 , urn : nbn: de: bvb: 12-bsb10859626-9 : “In its barely one hundred years of class rule, the bourgeoisie created more massive and colossal productive forces than all previous generations combined. Subjugation of natural forces, machinery, the application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole parts of the world, making rivers navigable, whole populations stamped out of the ground - what an earlier century suspected that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labor . "
  67. ^ Eduard March: The theory of economic development by Joseph A. Schumpeter in its relationship to the Marxian system . In: Economy and Society. Economic journal of the Chamber for Workers and Salaried Employees for Vienna, 6th year, issue 3 . 1980, p. 256 and p. 259 .
  68. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 167 : “The capital of a company is also not the epitome of all goods serving its purposes. For capital is opposed to the world of goods: goods are bought for capital - "capital is invested in goods" - but this is precisely where the knowledge lies that its function is different from that of the goods acquired. [...] That Capital is the means of procuring goods. "
  69. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 132 .
  70. ^ Eduard March: The theory of economic development by Joseph A. Schumpeter in its relationship to the Marxian system . In: Economy and Society. Economic journal of the Chamber for Workers and Salaried Employees for Vienna, 6th year, issue 3 . 1980, p. 263-264 .