Black Friday (1910)

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On Black Friday: A police officer tries to wrest a banner from a suffragette.
A suffragette was arrested on Black Friday

The Black Friday (Engl. Black Friday ) was a suffragette -Demonstration on 18 November 1910 in London, at the 300 women to the Houses of Parliament to march for women's suffrage to fight. The day was named Black Friday because of the (partly sexual) violence perpetrated against the demonstrators by the London police and male spectators.

The background to the demonstration was the broken election promises during the general election campaign in Great Britain in 1910 . The then Prime Minister and Chairman of the Liberal Party , Herbert Henry Asquith , had promised to introduce a law into parliament that would allow some women to vote in national parliamentary elections. The Parliamentary Conciliation Committee , which was set up after the successful election, proposed a law that would have given one million women the right to vote. The suffragette movement welcomed the proposal. Although MPs supported the bill and it passed the first and second readings successfully, Asquith refused to give the bill the time it needed in parliament to finally pass the bill. Instead, he called another general election on November 18 after the Upper and Lower Houses of the UK Parliament failed to agree on a budget. He scheduled the dissolution of parliament for November 28th.

The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) viewed this move as treason and organized a protest march from Caxton Hall in Westminster to Parliament that same day . Outside the Houses of Parliament , the 300 demonstrators encountered police forces and a crowd of male onlookers. During the next six hours the women were attacked by them. Many women complained that they were sexually molested, including having their breasts squeezed and pinched. The police arrested four men and 115 women, but all charges were dropped the following day. The Conciliation Committee was troubled by the reports and interviewed 135 protesters who described almost all acts of violence against women; 29 of the statements contained details of sexual assault. Calls for a public inquiry were of Winston Churchill , the then Minister of the Interior ( Home Secretary ), rejected.

The violence experienced may have caused the subsequent deaths of two suffragettes. The demonstration led to a change in the WSPU's approach: many WSPU members were unwilling to subject themselves to similar violence again, so they resumed previous forms of direct action , such as throwing stones or throwing windows, which gave them more time to escape . The police also changed their tactics: at later demonstrations they tried not to make arrests too early or too late.

background

Women's Social and Political Union

Banner of the Hammersmith group of the Women's Social and Political Union

The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded in 1903 by the political activist Emmeline Pankhurst . Around 1905, after the failure of a legislative proposal on women's suffrage tabled by a member of parliament, the organization began using increasingly militant direct action to advocate women's suffrage in Britain. From 1906 WSPU members used the name suffragettes to differentiate themselves from the suffragists , the members of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies , who used lawful methods in their campaign for the right to vote.

In 1909, incarcerated suffragettes began to go on hunger strike because of the conditions of detention (they required political prisoner status, not criminal), which resulted in their early release. The women on hunger strikes became martyrs for the campaign, to a greater extent than mere incarceration had previously, which made WSPU supporters even more determined. Public opinion turned against these tactics and the government took advantage of the changed public perception to introduce tougher measures. In October 1909, for example, Herbert Gladstone , the Home Secretary, gave orders that all prisoners on hunger strike should be force-fed .

Political situation

Front page of Votes for Women with a caricature of Asquith offering extended voting rights, which the suffragettes dismissed as unlikely

The liberal government elected in 1905 embarked on social reforms to combat poverty and unemployment and to introduce old-age pensions. The Conservatives, who dominated the British House of Lords, blocked much of this legislation. According to historian Bruce Murray, many of the measures introduced by the government have been "watered down by amendments or discarded immediately" by the House of Lords. In 1909 the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the so-called People's Budget with the clear intention of redistributing wealth among the population. This budget passed the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords, which was a breach of the constitution. Actually, the House of Commons decided solely on financial legislation. Asquith then called parliamentary elections for the new year on December 3, 1909, in order to receive a new political mandate for his legislation.

As part of the campaign for the 1910 elections, Asquith, a well-known opponent of women's suffrage, announced that he would present a draft law (a so-called Conciliation Bill ) to introduce - restricted - women's suffrage. Women's suffrage activists doubted that would happen. In the election, the Liberals lost nearly a hundred seats to the Conservatives. They now only had a slim majority ( hung parliament ) and could only stay in power through a coalition with the Irish Parliamentary Party .

Women's Social and Political Union leaflet announcing the demonstration

On January 31, 1910, in response to Asquith's election promise, Pankhurst announced that the WSPU would pause all militant action and focus on lawful activities. For the next six months, the women's suffrage movement ran a large propaganda campaign of parades and gatherings. Many local councils passed resolutions that supported the bill. When the new parliament met, a bipartisan Conciliation Committee was formed, chaired by Victor Bulwer-Lytton . The committee consisted of 25 Liberal MPs, 17 Conservatives, six Irish Nationalists and six Labor MPs. It proposed legislation that would give homeowners and business women the right to vote. The bill was based on existing municipal election laws, in which some women had been allowed to vote since 1870. The conditions were chosen to be relatively restrictive, so that the number of women eligible to vote remained small, so that the bill was acceptable to as many MPs as possible. Approximately one million women would have been eligible to vote with the legal measure. Although the WSPU found the scope of the bill too limited (it excluded female tenants and most wives and workers), the WSPU, like the other women's suffrage groups, endorsed it as an important step.

The Conciliation Bill was introduced into parliament on June 14, 1910 as a parliamentary initiative. The issue of women's suffrage split the cabinet and the bill was discussed at three separate cabinet meetings. Speaking at a cabinet meeting on June 23, Asquith said he would let the bill pass for a second reading, but then would not give her any more parliamentary time, so that would be doomed. Nearly 200 MPs signed a memorandum asking Asquith for more parliamentary time to debate the bill, but he refused. The bill went through its second reading on July 11th and 12th, at which it was voted 299-189. Both Winston Churchill and Lloyd George voted against the bill; Churchill called him "anti-democratic".

At the end of the month, parliament paused until November. The WSPU chose to wait for parliament to meet again before deciding whether to return to militant action. In addition, the suffragettes agreed that Christabel Pankhurst would lead a delegation to Parliament if the Conciliation Bill were not given another parliamentary term. The delegation would demand that the bill become law and they would refuse to leave until that was implemented. On November 12, liberal politician Edward Gray announced that no more parliamentary time would be allowed for the Conciliation Bill for the remainder of the year. The WSPU then announced a militant demonstration to meet Parliament on November 18th.

November 18

Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Emmeline Pankhurst outside the Houses of Parliament on Black Friday
Another shot of Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Emmeline Pankhurst outside the Houses of Parliament on Black Friday

On November 18, 1910, Asquith tried to dissolve the stalemate between the upper and lower houses, which had resulted from the upper house's veto of the lower house's legislation, and set a parliamentary election. He announced the dissolution of parliament on November 28th. Any remaining time should be devoted to official government work. Asquith made no mention of the Conciliation Bill . At noon that day, the WSPU held a meeting at Caxton Hall, Westminster. The event had been widely announced and the British press was prepared for the expected demonstration later that day. From Caxton Hall, approximately 300 members marched to Parliament in groups of 10 to 12 as required by law to appeal directly to Asquith. The delegation was led by Emmeline Pankhurst. The delegates in the leadership group included the doctor Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , her daughter Louisa Garrett Anderson , a surgeon, Hertha Ayrton , an engineer and mathematician, and Sophia Duleep Singh , a princess from Punjab , whose godmother was Queen Victoria . The first group of protesters arrived at the St. Stephen's entrance to the Parliament building at 1:20 p.m. They were directed to Asquith's office, where his private secretary informed them that the prime minister refused to see them. They were escorted back to St. Stephen's entrance, where they were left to watch the demonstration.

Past demonstrations at the Houses of Parliament were monitored by the local A Division of Police, who understood the nature of the demonstrations and who managed to counter the WSPU tactics without undue violence. Sylvia Pankhurst wrote, "During our conflicts with us, the A Division slowly got to know us and understood our goals and intentions, and for this reason they managed to treat the women with as much courtesy and consideration as possible, following their instructions." Instead, on November 18, police were recruited from Whitechapel and the East End of London with no experience of dealing with suffragettes.

Reports of what happened during the demonstration - from the government, press and demonstrators - differ so widely that it is difficult to determine what actually happened.

Rosa May Billinghurst , a disabled suffragette who was there on Black Friday

The groups of suffragettes entering Parliament Square met groups of spectators at the Westminster Abbey entrance, who physically attacked the women. After passing through these groups, the suffragettes encountered police cordons. The police had been instructed not to arrest anyone, but rather to force the women to retreat by pushing, kicking, and hitting them. The demonstration lasted six hours. The demonstrators later stated that they were individually pounded and beaten by several police officers, and that sexual assaults had also occurred. Many of the suffragettes believed that the groups of men who attacked them were plainclothes police. By the time the demonstration ended, four men and 115 women had been arrested.

Caxton Hall was used throughout the day as a medical care center for suffragettes injured during the demonstration. Sylvia Pankhurst later wrote in her memoirs: “We saw women go out and return exhausted, with blue eyes, bleeding noses, bruises, sprains and dislocations. The call went around: 'Be careful; they drag women into the side streets! ' We knew it meant worse abuse. ”One of the women who was taken to a back street was Rosa May Billinghurst, a disabled suffragette who campaigned in a wheelchair. The police pushed her down a side street, attacked her and stole the valves from her tires, leaving her helpless. Historian Harold Smith writes, "Witnesses and victims felt that the police had deliberately tried to subject women to sexual humiliation in a public place in order to teach them a lesson."

The following days

When the arrested were taken to Bow Street Police Court the following morning, prosecutors stated that, on the instructions of Home Secretary Churchill, all charges had been dropped because, in the interests of public order, “there would be no public benefit if the prosecution on that occasion would be achieved keep working ”. On November 22nd, Asquith announced that a Conciliation Bill would be granted parliamentary time if the Liberals came back to power in the next election. The WSPU were angry that he made this promise for the next term rather than the next session of Parliament. 200 suffragettes marched to Downing Street where they got into scuffle with the police. 159 women and three men were arrested. The next day another march to parliament met again with a police presence. This time 18 demonstrators were arrested. The charges against many of the suffragettes arrested that day were subsequently dropped.

Reactions

Front cover of The Daily Mirror , November 19, 1910, with a suffragette on the ground after being beaten by a police officer.
The picture probably shows Ada Wright . Georgiana Solomon identified her in the newspaper Votes for Women , and Sylvia Pankhurst named her in her book The Suffragette Movement (1931). The UK National Archives, on the other hand, are more likely to believe it was Ernestine Mills .

On November 19, 1910, newspapers reported on the previous day's events. In Morrell's view, they "almost unanimously avoided any mention of police brutality" and instead focused on the behavior of the suffragettes. The front page of the Daily Mirror featured a large photo of a suffragette on the ground after being beaten by a police officer during Black Friday. The Daily Mirror's art editor forwarded the photo to the London Metropolitan Police commissioner for comment. The commissioner tried to play down the photo in which he said the woman had collapsed from exhaustion. The picture was also published in Votes for Women , Manchester Guardian and Daily Express .

The historian Morrell noted that the newspaper reports only showed sympathy for the police officers. The Times reported that "several police officers had their helmets knocked off while doing their duty, one was injured by a kick in the ankle, one was cut in the face from a belt, and one was cut in the hand." The Daily Mirror wrote, “The police consistently showed great equanimity and tact and avoided arrests, but as usual, many suffragettes would not settle for anything until they were arrested ... one police officer was injured in an altercation and limped away by two colleagues . ”The suffragettes, on the other hand, were only mentioned disapprovingly. After Churchill decided not to prosecute the suffragettes, some newspapers criticized the decision.

On March 3, protester Georgiana Solomon wrote to the Times that police had attacked her. She would have been bedridden since her physical abuse and would not have been able to file a complaint immediately after the demonstration. Instead, on December 17th, she sent Churchill a full statement on what she had been through and what abuse she had seen against others. She had received a formal confirmation of receipt, but no further letter from the government about what had happened. Your letter to Churchill was printed in full in the WSPU's magazine , Votes for Women .

The WSPU leadership believed that Churchill had instructed the police to abuse the women rather than arrest them quickly. Churchill denied the allegation in the House of Commons and was so upset that he considered suing Christabel Pankhurst and The Times , who reported the allegation, for defamation. June Purvis also writes in her biography of Emmeline Pankhurst that the police followed Churchill's instructions not to make arrests. Historian Andrew Rosen believes, however, that Churchill did not give instructions to the police to mistreat the protesters.

Murray and Brailsford Report

When members of the Conciliation Committee heard the reports of the mistreatment of the demonstrators, they requested a public inquiry, which Churchill refused to accept. The committee secretary, journalist Henry Brailsford, and psychotherapist Jessi Murray collected 135 testimonies from demonstrators, describing almost all of the violence against women. 29 of the statements also contained sexual assault. The memorandum they published summarized their findings:

“The action of which the most frequent complaint is made is variously described as twisting round, pinching, screwing, nipping, or wringing the breast. This was often done in the most public way so as to inflict the utmost humiliation. Not only was it an offense against decency; it caused in many cases intense pain ... The language used by some of the police while performing this action proves that it was consciously sensual. "

“The most frequently complained practice has been described in a variety of ways as pushing, pinching, mangling, pinching, and chest squeezing. This has often been done in public for the greatest possible humiliation. Not only was it an attack on feminine decency, in many cases it also caused intense pain ... The expressions that some of the police officers used while carrying out this action show that they deliberately made it voluptuous. "

- Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage : The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police

A woman who gave her name as Miss H testified, "a policeman ... put an arm around me and grabbed my left breast, squeezing it very painfully, saying, 'You have wanted this for a long time, or'". The American suffragette Elisabeth Freeman reported that a police officer grabbed her thigh. She testified, “I demanded that he stop doing such a hateful act against a woman. He said, 'Oh, my darling, I can grope you wherever I want today' ”. Another woman said, "The policeman who tried to drive me forward did so by poking his knees into me from behind with the deliberate intention of hitting my private parts."

On February 2, 1911, the Murray and Brailsford memorandum was presented to the Home Office along with a formal request for public inquiry. Churchill refused again. On March 1, in response to a question in Parliament , he informed the House of Commons about the memorandum:

"[The memorandum] contains a large number of charges against the police of criminal misconduct, which, if there were any truth in them, should have been made at the time and not after a lapse of three months. ... I have made inquiry of the Commissioner [of Metropolitan Police] with regard to certain general statements included in the memorandum and find them to be devoid of foundation. There is no truth in the statement that the police had instructions which led them to terrorize and maltreat the women. On the contrary, the superintendent in charge impressed upon them that as they would have to deal with women, they must act with restraint and moderation, using no more force than might be necessary, and maintaining under any provocation they might receive, control of temper . ”

“[The Memorandum] contains a large number of charges of criminal misconduct against police officers which, if there was any truth in them, should have been brought up in a timely manner rather than after a period of three months. ... I have conducted an investigation with the Commissioner (of the Metropolitan Police) into certain general statements cited in the memorandum and found that they were unfounded. The claim that the police had instructions that led to the terrorism and abuse of the women is completely false. On the contrary, the duty superintendent made it clear to them that they would be dealing with women. that they must act with restraint and moderation, avoiding unnecessary violence and always keeping their own behavior under control, no matter what provocations are used. "

- Winston Churchill : Metropolitan Police and Suffragettes

Effects

The deaths of two suffragettes have been attributed to their abuse on Black Friday. Mary Clarke, Emmeline Pankhurst's younger sister, was present on both Black Friday and the demonstration on Downing Street on November 22nd. After a month in jail for throwing windows on Downing Street, she was released on December 23 and died of a brain haemorrhage at the age of 48 on Christmas Day.Emmeline blamed her death on the mistreatment Clarke experienced during the two November demonstrations. Murray and Brailsford wrote that they had no evidence directly linking Mrs. Clarke's death to the demonstrations. The second victim the WSPU claimed died from abuse was Henria Williams. She had made a statement to Brailsford and Murray, “After a policeman had pushed me for a considerable time, he finally grabbed me with his big, strong hands just above my heart. ... I knew if I didn't try hard ... he would kill me ”. Williams died of a heart attack on January 1, 1911. Murray and Brailsford wrote, "there is evidence to show that Miss Henria Williams ... was treated with great brutality and that she was aware of the effect on her weak heart at the time."

Shop windows damaged by suffragettes in London, March 1912

The events between November 18th and 25th had the effect on many WSPU members that they no longer wanted to participate in demonstrations. Secondments to parliament were halted and direct actions such as throwing stones and throwing windows became more common, giving women a chance to escape before the police could arrest them. Historian Elizabeth Crawford believes that the events of Black Friday "shaped the image of the relationship between the two forces and that the events mark a turning point in the relationship between the militant women's rights movement and the police." Crawford noted a change in police tactics after Black Friday. Charles Edward Troup, Undersecretary at the Home Office, wrote to the Commissioner of the London Metropolitan Police in January 1911, “I think there can be no doubt that the least intrusive course for the police will be not to arrest too soon or too long waiting to be arrested, ”which became the normal course of action of the police.

Black Friday 1910 was a low point in the British women's suffrage movement and one of the many exemplary conflicts between militant suffragettes and the police. The escalation of violence ended when England declared war on the German Reich in August 1914. Emmeline Pankhurst then mobilized WSPU women for arms production, and the militancy of the women's movement resigned in favor of war effort in World War I. After the First World War, the right to vote for British women was introduced in 1918, but not on the same terms as for men, but only to a limited extent from the age of 30 and subject to ownership. It was not until 1928 that British women received universal suffrage on the same basis as men.

On November 17, 2010, a vigil called Remember the Suffragettes was held on College Green in Parliament Square , London, in honor of the direct actions.

literature

Books

Magazines

  • Richard Cavendish: The House of Lords Rejects the 1909 People's Budget . In: History Today 59 (11), November 2009.
  • Winston Churchill, Home Secretary: Metropolitan Police and Suffragettes . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons. col. 367-368, March 1, 1911.
  • Elizabeth Crawford: Police, Prisons and Prisoners: the View from the Home Office . In: Women's History Review , 14 (3 & 4), 2005, pp. 487-505.
  • Nicholas Hiley: The Candid Camera of the Edwardian Tabloids . In: History Today 43 (8), Aug. 8, 1993, pp. 16-21.
  • Sandra Stanley Holton: Women's Social and Political Union (act. 1903-1914) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2017.
  • Katherine E. Kelly: Seeing Through Spectacles: The Woman Suffrage Movement and London Newspapers, 1906-13 . In: European Journal of Women's Studies 11 (3), 2004, pp. 327–353.
  • Bruce Murray: The 'People's Budget' a Century on . In: Journal of Liberal History . Liberal Democrat History Group (64), Fall 2009, pp. 4-13.
  • David Shackleton, MP: Parliamentary Franchise (Women) . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons. col. 1202-1207, June 14, 1910.
  • Jason Tomes: Lytton, Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer-, second earl of Lytton (1876-1947) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008.
  • Hayley Trueman: Billinghurst, (Rosa) May (1875-1953) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
  • Elizabeth van Heyningen: Solomon [née Thomson], Georgiana Margaret (1844–1933) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006.
  • Steven Watson: The Budget and the Lords: The Crisis of 1910-11 . In: History Today 3 (4), April 1953.

Newspaper articles

  • Ninety Suffragettes Arrested . In: The Daily Mirror . November 19, 1910. p. 4.
  • The Outlook . In: Votes for Women . November 25, 1910. pp. 117-118.
  • Pankhurst, Sylvia: Miss Sylvia Pankhurst's account. In: Votes for Women , November 25, 1910, pp. 120-121.
  • Solomon, Georgiana: Black Friday . In: Votes for Women 1911, pp. 1-5.
  • Solomon, Georgiana: Treatment of the Women's Deputations by the Police . In: The Times , March 3, 1911, p. 10.
  • A Spectacle for the Women of England . In: The Daily Express , November 19, 1910, p. 1.
  • Suffrage Raiders . In: The Times , November 19, 1910, p. 10.
  • Suffragettes at the House of Commons Yesterday . In: The Manchester Guardian , November 19, 1910, p. 7.
  • Suffragists or suffragettes - who won women the vote? BBC website, February 6, 2018. Retrieved March 20, 2018.

Web links

Commons : Black Friday (1910)  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Sandra Stanley Holton: Women's Social and Political Union (act. 1903-1914) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2017.
  2. ↑ Elizabeth Crawford: The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide 1866–1928 . UCL Press, London 2003, ISBN 978-1-135-43402-1 , p. 729.
  3. ↑ Suffragists or suffragettes - who won women the vote? BBC website. February 6, 2018. Accessed March 20, 2018.
  4. ↑ Robson 1974, pp. 120-121.
  5. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 21.
  6. ^ A b Steven Watson: The Budget and the Lords: The Crisis of 1910-11 . In: History Today 3 (4), April 1953.
  7. ↑ Bruce Murray: The 'People's Budget' a Century on . In: Journal of Liberal History . Liberal Democrat History Group (64), Fall 2009, p. 5.
  8. ^ GR Searle: A New England ?: Peace and War 1886-1918 . Clarendon Press, Oxford 2005, ISBN 978-0-19-254398-1 , p. 409.
  9. ↑ a b Bruce Murray: The 'People's Budget' a Century on . In: Journal of Liberal History . Liberal Democrat History Group (64), Fall 2009, p. 6.
  10. ^ Richard Cavendish: The House of Lords Rejects the 1909 People's Budget. In: History Today 59 (11), November 2009.
  11. ↑ Lucinda Hawksley: March, Women, March . Andre Deutsch, London 2017, ISBN 978-0-233-00525-6 , pp. 161-162.
  12. ↑ Stephen Koss: Asquith. Hamish Hamilton, London 1985, ISBN 978-0-231-06155-1 , p. 118.
  13. ↑ June Purvis: Christabel Pankhurst: A Biography. Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2018, ISBN 978-0-8153-7149-6 , p. 212.
  14. ^ A b Diane Atkinson: Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 3545.
  15. ^ Jason Tomes: Lytton, Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer-, second earl of Lytton (1876-1947) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008.
  16. ^ June Purvis: The Campaign for Women's Suffrage in Britain . August 3, 2016. doi: 10.4324 / 9781138641839-HOF9-1 . Retrieved April 9, 2018.
  17. ^ Leslie Hume: The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies 1897–1914 . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2016, ISBN 978-1-317-21327-7 , p. 71.
  18. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 22.
  19. ↑ June Purvis: Emmeline Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-32593-6 , p. 144.
  20. ^ A b c Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 23.
  21. ^ David Shackleton, MP: Parliamentary Franchise (Women) . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons. col. 1202-1207, June 14, 1910.
  22. ^ Martin Pugh, The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914 . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000, ISBN 978-0-19-820775-7 , p. 140.
  23. ↑ June Purvis: Christabel Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2018, ISBN 978-0-8153-7149-6 , p. 219.
  24. ^ Christabel Pankhurst: The Story of How We Won the Vote. Hutchinson, London 1959, p. 159.
  25. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , pp. 3795 and 3881.
  26. ↑ June Purvis: Christabel Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2018, ISBN 978-0-8153-7149-6 , p. 226.
  27. ↑ Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , pp. 108-109.
  28. ↑ Lucinda Hawksley: March, Women, March . Andre Deutsch, London 2017, ISBN 978-0-233-00525-6 , p. 166.
  29. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 6630.
  30. ↑ Suffrage Raiders. In: The Times , November 19, 1910, p. 10.
  31. ^ A b Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 33.
  32. ↑ Joyce Marlow (Ed.): Suffragettes: The Fight for Votes for Women , Kindle. Little, Brown Book Group, London 2015, ISBN 978-0-349-00775-5 , p. 1984.
  33. ^ Pankhurst, Sylvia: Miss Sylvia Pankhurst's Account . In: Votes for Women , November 25, 1910, p. 121.
  34. ↑ Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , p. 109.
  35. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 4227.
  36. ↑ Sophia A. van Wingerden: The Women's Suffrage Movement in Britain, 1866-1928 . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hants 1999, ISBN 978-0-312-21853-9 , p. 123.
  37. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 32.
  38. ^ A b Harold L. Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866–1928 , 2nd edition, Routledge, London 2014, ISBN 978-1-317-86225-3 , p. 50.
  39. ^ Lisa Tickner: The Spectacle of Women . University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL 1988, ISBN 978-0-226-80245-9 , p. 121.
  40. ^ Susan Kingsley Kent: Sex and Suffrage in Britain, 1860-1914 . Routledge, London 1990, ISBN 978-0-415-05520-8 , p. 180.
  41. ↑ Lucinda Hawksley: March, Women, March . Andre Deutsch, London 2017, ISBN 978-0-233-00525-6 , p. 169.
  42. ^ Sylvia Pankhurst: The Suffragette Movement - An Intimate Account of Persons and Ideals , Kindle. Wharton Press, London 2013, p. 6656.
  43. ^ Hayley Trueman: Billinghurst, (Rosa) May (1875-1953) . In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004.
  44. ↑ Harold L. Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866–1928 , 2nd edition, Routledge, London 2014, ISBN 978-1-317-86225-3 .
  45. ↑ Sophia A. van Wingerden: The Women's Suffrage Movement in Britain, 1866-1928 . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hants 1999, ISBN 978-0-312-21853-9 , p. 124.
  46. ↑ June Purvis: Emmeline Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-32593-6 , pp. 151-152.
  47. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , pp. 45-46.
  48. ^ Nicholas Hiley: The Candid Camera of the Edwardian Tabloids . In: History Today 43 (8), Aug. 8, 1993, p. 16.
  49. ^ Katherine E. Kelly, Seeing Through Spectacles: The Woman Suffrage Movement and London Newspapers, 1906-13 . In: European Journal of Women's Studies 11 (3), 2004, p. 327.
  50. ^ Solomon, Georgiana: Black Friday . In: Votes for Women 1911, p. 3.
  51. ^ Sylvia Pankhurst: The Suffragette Movement - An Intimate Account of Persons and Ideals , Kindle. Wharton Press, London 2013, p. 4098.
  52. ^ Women's Suffrage . In: National Archives . Retrieved April 16, 2018.
  53. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 39.
  54. ^ Nicholas Hiley: The Candid Camera of the Edwardian Tabloids . In: History Today 43 (8), Aug. 8, 1993, pp. 16-17.
  55. ^ Katherine E. Kelly, Seeing Through Spectacles: The Woman Suffrage Movement and London Newspapers, 1906-13 . In: European Journal of Women's Studies 11 (3), 2004, pp. 328–329.
  56. ^ Pankhurst, Sylvia: Miss Sylvia Pankhurst's Account . In: Votes for Women , November 25, 1910, pp. 120-121.
  57. ^ Suffragettes at the House of Commons Yesterday . In: The Manchester Guardian , November 19, 1910, p. 7.
  58. ^ A Spectacle for the Women of England . In: The Daily Express , November 19, 1910, p. 1.
  59. ↑ Suffrage Raiders . In: The Times , Nov. 19, 1910, p. 10, quoted in Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 39.
  60. ↑ Ninety Suffragettes Arrested . In: The Daily Mirror , November 19, 1910, p. 4, quoted in Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 39.
  61. ^ Caroline Morrell: 'Black Friday': Violence Against Women in the Suffragette Movement . Women's Research and Resources Center, London 1981, ISBN 978-0-905969-08-4 , p. 40.
  62. ↑ Sophia A. van Wingerden: The Women's Suffrage Movement in Britain, 1866-1928 . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hants 1999, ISBN 978-0-312-21853-9 .
  63. ^ Solomon, Georgiana: Black Friday . In: Votes for Women 1911, pp. 1-5.
  64. ^ Georgiana Solomon: Treatment of the Women's Deputations by the Police . In: The Times , March 3, 1911, p. 10.
  65. ↑ June Purvis: Christabel Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2018, ISBN 978-0-8153-7149-6 , p. 241.
  66. ^ The Outlook . In: Votes for Women , November 25, 1910, p. 117.
  67. ↑ June Purvis: Emmeline Pankhurst: A Biography . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-32593-6 , p. 150.
  68. ^ Andrew Rosen, Rise Up, Women !: The Militant Campaign of the Women's Social and Political Union, 1903-1914 . Routledge, London 2013, ISBN 978-1-136-24754-5 , p. 140.
  69. ↑ Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , pp. 109-110.
  70. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 4451.
  71. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 9.
  72. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 33, quoted in June Purvis, Sandra Holton (Ed.): Votes For Women . Routledge, Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2002, ISBN 978-1-134-61065-5 , p. 139.
  73. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, pp. 28-29, quoted in Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , p. 111.
  74. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 32, quoted in Marie Mulvey Roberts, Tamae Mizuta (Ed.): The Militants: Suffragette Activism . Routledge, London 1994, ISBN 978-0-415-10352-7 , p. 5.
  75. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 112.
  76. ↑ Winston Churchill, Home Secretary: Metropolitan Police and Suffragettes . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . House of Commons. col. 367-368, March 1, 1911.
  77. ↑ Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , p. 112.
  78. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , pp. 4168-4325.
  79. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police. Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 6.
  80. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 30, quoted in Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote. Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , p. 111.
  81. ↑ Jane Robinson: Hearts and Minds: The Untold Story of the Great Pilgrimage and How Women Won the Vote . Transworld, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4735-4086-6 , p. 113.
  82. ^ Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage: The Treatment of the Women's Deputations of November 18th, 22nd and 23rd, 1910 by the Police . Conciliation Committee for Woman Suffrage, London 1911, p. 6.
  83. ^ Diane Atkinson, Rise Up Women !: The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes , Kindle. Bloomsbury, London 2018, ISBN 978-1-4088-4406-9 , p. 4256.
  84. ↑ Elizabeth Crawford: The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide 1866–1928 . UCL Press, London 2003, ISBN 978-1-135-43402-1 , p. 491.
  85. ↑ Elizabeth Crawford: Police, Prisons and Prisoners: the View from the Home Office. In: Women's History Review, 14 (3 & 4), 2005, p. 492.
  86. ^ Frank Patalong: Suffragette Movement: Civil War of the Sexes . Spiegel Online , March 1, 2013. Accessed December 2, 2018.
  87. ^ Kat Gupta: Representation of the British Suffrage Movement . Bloomsbury Academic, London 2017, ISBN 978-1-350-03666-6 , p. 2.