Sociological actor models

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

As Sociological player models in to sociology theoretical models called that are used to trying the behavior and in particular the social action of actors to explain. In these considerations, actors can be both individual individuals and groups of individuals conceived as a unit - so-called collective actors . The best known and most frequently used sociological actor models are the homo oeconomicus and the homo sociologicus .

General

What all sociological actor models have in common is the attempt to find regularities in the actors' choices of action. In order to be able to identify regularities, the actors are assumed to have a structural influence on their actions. The types of structural influences that are used to explain choices for action differ depending on the model and application.

Behavior, action and social action

As elsewhere in sociology, when describing actor models, a distinction is often made between behavior and action and social action. This distinction goes back to Max Weber among others . Action is such behavior with which the acting subject connects a subjective meaning. Action, in turn, becomes social action when it is related to the behavior of other subjects according to its subjective meaning.

Location within sociology

The relationship between sociological actor models and other sociological considerations can be demonstrated using the concepts of Anthony Giddens and Hartmut Esser .

According to the structuring theory formulated by Anthony Giddens and the concept of the duality of structure contained in it , the structural properties of social systems are “both the medium and the result of the practices that organize them recursively” (Giddens 1988, p. 77). This observation indicates that the behavior of actors is influenced on the one hand by the structure of social systems, but on the other hand these structures are also produced - i.e. similarly reproduced or changed - by the behavior of the actors. The influence of structures and behavior is therefore mutual.

A similar fact can be derived from Hartmut Esser's three logics of situation , selection and aggregation : While the logic of the situation characterizes the influencing structural conditions and the logic of the selection characterizes the choices made by the actors, the logic of the aggregation characterizes those from the new logic of the situation arising from the previous structural conditions and choices of action .

In these more holistic considerations, two theorising approaches of sociality can be identified, which, if left at that, would lead to the two sociologies that Alan Dawe called the structural theoretical sociology of social systems and the action-theoretical sociology of social action . The sociological actor models could be assigned to the second of these two “sociologies” as theories of action.

Examples of actor models

Homo sociologicus

According to the actor model of Homo sociologicus , actors are characterized by the fact that their actions are primarily determined by role expectations that are directed towards the roles they occupy . These role expectations are based on different reference groups of the respective roles, who try to enforce the fulfillment of these expectations through positive and negative sanctions. Usually it is assumed that many role expectations are internalized by the actors. Simple applications of homo sociologicus , in which the actors are characterized by merely fulfilling the role expectations placed on them, can be distinguished from those applications in which actors are allowed or required to shape their roles themselves to a greater or lesser extent. Role conflicts in particular are viewed as a reason for such role design , e.g. B. Incompatibilities between role expectations that are made by different reference groups of the role of an actor or of different roles occupied by him.

An everyday example would be a manager who embodies different roles in her life:

  • woman
  • mother
  • wife
  • manager
  • Member of the tennis club
  • ...

Each of these roles is heavily dependent on the role-specific social norms. A woman is expected to be more cordial, dreamy, emotional, sensitive, etc., whereas a manager is more likely to be associated with harder attributes such as merciless, rational, restrictive, etc. These sometimes very different social norms, which are closely linked to the roles of a person, often cause inter- or intra- role conflicts (see: role conflict ). A typical inter- role conflict in this case is that this woman has to decide how to spend her free time. She could help with the bookkeeping at the tennis club, spend time with her children, go to the movies with her husband, or check out her professional emails again. In this case, there is a conflict between the expectations of the various roles of our manager. An intra- role conflict , on the other hand, relates to a role and conflicting expectations of different reference groups . For example, the employees of the company our manager works for could demand higher salaries and less overtime from management, while management is pushing for further wage cuts due to international competition. So here there is a conflict between different demands of different groups that are relevant for the manager in one of her roles.

Homo oeconomicus

With Homo economicus an actor model is referred to, which not least in the economics and especially in the micro-sociology is used. According to this, actors try, on the basis - depending on the application - of complete or limited knowledge of their options for action, which are limited in each case, as well as their consequences, to rationally select the action alternative that brings them the greatest benefit - depending on the goals pursued. This actor model is based on the theory of rational decision .

A simple example of the application of the homo economicus model is that of a consumer who tries with limited funds to make the most advantageous possible selection from the range of goods available to him. For this selection, brochures with offers are viewed and the prices between different sellers are compared. Strictly speaking, homo oeconomicus would not drive to the other end of town for a product that is five cents cheaper, since time and gasoline also play a role in the purchase decision. Homo oeconomicus is thus a personality who always weighs costs very carefully in relation to benefits. The decision is always made on the basis of all available information.

Homo culturalis

The economist Siegfried Katterle contrasts the homo economicus with the homo culturalis . According to Peter Ulrich , this model of Katterle is "the model of a life-wise citizen [..] whose individuation (personal identity development) cannot be detached from his social integration". Katterle also attributes the image of man to a homo culturalis to Gerhard Weisser , who had a great influence on him , namely that of a “polythematically motivated, encultured person” with diverse concerns and internal ties. As Ulrich emphasizes, according to Katterle, this person is not only shaped by the one-sided success logic of homo oeconomicus (“I calculate, therefore I am”), but also by the normative logic of interpersonal relationships (“I feel sympathy, therefore I am”).

Even Stephan Panther and Hans G. Nutzinger see a contrast between a homo economicus and homo Culturalis . For these authors, the "homo culturalis" observes, describes and interprets others and himself, and in this process he forms his identity. He accomplishes this process through communication, especially through linguistic symbols. These are interwoven with common practices and related to concrete situations and physical presence. The homo culturalis develops individual as well as collective identities in the course of self-description. The contrast between the homo oeconomicus and a homo culturalis could not be greater; For example, understanding is essential for the latter, but about the former one could say almost without exaggeration: "The homo oeconomicus does not speak".

Emotional man

The Emotional Man is an actor model, which is presented in more detail by the Swedish sociologist Helena Flam in her work The Emotional Man and the Problem of Collective Action . It differentiates the emotional one in two forms. The pure emotional man and the constrained emotional man . In contrast to the constrained emotional one, the pure emotional one always lives out one's emotions unhindered. He doesn't care about social norms , but lives out his feelings openly. In contrast, the constrained also wants to live out his emotions, but can be influenced by the norms in his world.

The pure emotional man is rarely found in today's society, as the social norms and the resulting restrictions are feared. However, one can often observe the pure emotional one in drunk people. Because of their alcohol level, they often do not care how they affect their environment and openly live out the feelings that come to mind. A drunken person who suddenly starts crying in public while listening to a sad song is an example of the construct of the pure emotional man. The constrained emotional man can be observed much more frequently in reality. A non-drunk person is unlikely to cry over a sad song, even if they feel like it, because the norms tell them that this behavior is seen as inappropriate in public. Another example of the constrained emotional man is a stewardess who has a bad day but still puts on her best smile for the passengers. This behavior is based on the fact that the stewardess is aware that flight attendants are expected to be cheerful and friendly. So she adapts to this social norm and does what is called emotional work .

Identity Supervisor

The actor model of the identity claimant goes back to the sociologist Uwe Schimank . In addition to the homo sociologicus, the homo oeconomicus and the emotional man, this sets the model of the identity claimant. He writes: “A person's identity is their self-image; and there are actions that we carry out only or mainly because we want to document outwardly and ourselves how we see ourselves. ”In this quote it becomes clear that the claimant of identity is a person who has a clear picture of who she is who she wants to be and who she should be. Decisions are made on the basis of this self-image.

The identity claimant is in reality a person whose main focus is on acting consistently according to oneself. Suppose a person determines their identity, among other things, by being completely honest with everyone around them. As a pure identity claimant, this person would always openly express his / her opinion to his / her boss, even if she / he runs the risk of being fired. Likewise, an identity claimant can choose to be a pacifist and therefore refuse military service. This can result in high costs for this person in the form of bureaucratic barriers or legal penalties. But a “pure” identity claimant doesn't care about these consequences as long as he “remains true to himself”.

Comparison of the actor models

The actor models have similarities and differences. There are differences, for example, in the assumptions regarding the number of alternatives that are taken into account in the selection. Homo Oeconomicus is (as a rule) fully informed about all alternatives. Homo Sociologicus is not (explicitly) based on such an assumption. Due to the function of these models, the common features of Homo Sociologicus, Homo Oeconomicus, Emotional Man and Identity Holders include the intention to explain human behavior. It should be noted that in reality a person (usually) does not only act according to a model. Although these models are complete in theory, they complement each other in practice. This means that only very rarely can a person's actions be explained by a model alone.

For example, if you imagine a situation where a manager is forced by her boss to fire an employee. It should be borne in mind that the manager generally regards herself as understanding, but also honest and wants to act (in principle) according to this concept. If she is now forced by her boss to fire an employee from a financial point of view, she will be put in a predicament. The homo oeconomicus in her is aware that this decision is of a purely rational nature and is therefore absolutely understandable. The emotional one in her, however, feels sorry for the employee and feels uncomfortable with the termination. She would have objections to this dismissal, but because of her role as subordinate of her boss (homo sociologicus) and the fear of an argument (possibly higher costs than the termination of the employee - homo oeconomicus), she keeps her opinion to herself. However, this attitude contradicts their personality and thus the model of the head of identity. How the manager ultimately acts cannot be clearly defined. This decision is too dependent on the individual. In this case, for example, the daily constitution of the manager can decide whether she decides in favor of the termination or takes the side of the employee and stands for an alternative solution.

Further examples

The following actor models used in the social and economic sciences can also be cited as examples:

  1. Homo oecologicus : man as an ecologically active being
  2. Homo culturalis: counter model to Homo oeconomicus according to Walter Eucken, strong overlaps with the concepts of Homo sociologicus and Homo oecologicus
  3. Homo reciprocans : takes into account the behavior of other actors in the utility function
  4. Homo laborans: the human being as a working being
  5. Homo ludens : the human being as a playing being

With regard to the actor models, one should also look at the classification of social action according to Max Weber , who differentiates between four types in his explanations: purposeful, value-rational, affective and traditional action.

See also

literature

  • Hartmut Esser: Sociology - General Basics 2nd Edition, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 978-3-5933-4960-2 , Chapter 6, pp. 83-118 and 14, pp. 231-239.
  • Helena Flam: The Emotional Man and the Problem of Collective Action Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2010, ISBN 978-0-8204-4701-8 .
  • Anthony Giddens: The Constitution of Society , Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 978-3-5933-4744-8 .
  • Arlie Hochschild: The bought heart , Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1990, ISBN 3-593-34155-7 .
  • Uwe Schimank: Action and structures. Introduction to Actor Theory Sociology 3rd edition, Juventa, Weinheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-7799-1487-7 .
  • Max Weber: Basic Sociological Concepts. 6th edition, Mohr, Tübingen 1984, ISBN 978-3-8252-0541-6 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ JE Williams, DL Best: Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty nation study. Sage, London 1982
  2. ↑ Uwe Schimank: Action and Structures. Introduction to actor-theoretical sociology. 3rd edition, Juventa, Weinheim 2007, p. 71 ff.
  3. ↑ Siegfried Katterle, Methodological Individualism and Beyond, in Bernd Biervert, Martin Held (ed.): The image of man of economic theory. On the nature of man, Frankfurt / Main, 132–152, p. 138 f. Quoted from: Siegfried Katterle: Gerhard Weisser's contribution to the theory of economic policy. 1998, accessed March 17, 2019 . P. 69.
  4. ↑ Siegfried Katterle: Gerhard Weisser contribution to the theory of economic policy. 1998, accessed March 17, 2019 . P. 69.
  5. ↑ Peter Ulrich: Against the total market society. On the ideological criticism of neoliberal economism from the perspective of integrative business ethics. In: Articles and reports from the Institute for Business Ethics at the University of St. Gallen, No. 78. Institute for Business Ethics (IWE), October 1997, accessed on March 17, 2019 . ISBN 3-906548-81-3 . P. 11.
  6. ↑ Stephan Panther, Hans G. Nutzinger: Homo oeconomicus vs. homo culturalis: culture as a challenge to economics. Retrieved March 17, 2019 . Pp. 1-2.
  7. ↑ Stephan Panther, Hans G. Nutzinger: Homo oeconomicus vs. homo culturalis: culture as a challenge to economics. Retrieved March 17, 2019 . P. 9.
  8. ↑ Helena Flam: The Emotional Man and the Problem of Collective Action. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2010, p. 13 ff.
  9. ↑ Arlie Hochschild: “The bought heart.” Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1990, p. 74
  10. ↑ Uwe Schimank: Action and Structures. Introduction to actor-theoretical sociology. 3rd edition, Juventa, Weinheim 2000, p. 13.
  11. ↑ Uwe Schimank: Action and Structures. Introduction to actor-theoretical sociology. 3rd edition, Juventa, Weinheim 2000, p. 121 ff.
  12. ↑ Max Weber: Sociological Basic Concepts. 6th edition, Mohr, Tübingen 1984, p. 45 ff.