Structuring theory

The theory of structuring , also known as the theory of structuring , was formulated by the British sociologist Anthony Giddens in his book The Constitution of Society , published in 1984 . This theory represents a basic theory and belongs to the group of social theories .

The structuring theory is one of the more recent attempts to solve an old epistemological problem of the social sciences : How should one imagine the relationship between the individual and society, in other words: How should one imagine the relationship between the parts and the whole or between action and structure ? Giddens is one of those authors who consider both the emphasis on the individual (see methodological individualism ) and the emphasis on "society" (see methodological collectivism ) to be one-sided and oppose this to models that attempt to think about the connection between these poles. A key concept for him is the duality of the structure , by which he means an interaction between the action and the structure.

Theoretical starting position and interest in knowledge

Giddens tries to combine two previous approaches, which from his point of view only represent apparent opposites, in his structuring theory:

1. Objectivistic conceptions : Variants include structuralism and functionalism . Both have in common that they take a naturalistic and objectivistic point of view and take priority of the social whole over its individual parts. Structure influences action, it exerts compulsion. In other words, they assume an "imperialism of the social object".
   • Functionalist thinking has been based on biology since Comte ; biology is considered to be the guideline for the conceptualization of the structure and functioning of "social systems".
   • Structuralist thinking does not use any biological analogies, it assumes a homogeneity between natural and social sciences through cognitive traits.
2. Subjectivist conceptions : Variants include hermeneutics and symbolic interactionism . They have in common that individuals are not seen as influenced by social norms. Here the actor is the focus, a structure is not dominant here.
   • Hermeneutics sees natural and social sciences separately. Here there is a gap between subject and social object, the non-subjective world of experience is a strange, material, impersonal world.
   • Interpretative sociologies assume the common primacy of action and meaning. Structure and compulsion are seen as unimportant here. Based on imperialism of the subject.

How the concepts should be specified and how they can be related to structure and coercion is disputed.

Giddens' goal of structuralization is to refute "imperialist" approaches.

theory

Formalized rules in organizations only influence behavior to a limited extent, since they have to be interpreted by the actors in companies. They allow different courses of action and are taken into account by everyone involved. Structures are therefore both a medium and a result of social action. In their actions, the actors relate to this given structure and thereby produce or reproduce it. The circle closes - Giddens describes this as the duality of structure.

A consequence of the concept is that the (social) systems only arise through the structure .

Basic concepts

The actor and the action

Actors control their activities and thereby control their social and physical context. Social structures are recursive and are not produced by social actors, but reproduced in and through their actions. This is the condition that enables action. Actors have a rationality of action, have a theoretical understanding of their actions, and can therefore say why they are doing something. Motives for action relate to the needs that prompt action.

A motivation to act refers to the potential for action, i.e. to a permanent action execution. Motives usually only appear in situations that deviate from routine, so a large part of everyday behavior is not directly motivated.

A motivation to act is not, like the reflexive control of the action or the rationality of action , directly embedded in the continuation of the action. Motivation relates more to a potential for action than to the way in which the action is carried out by the actor. So the motives cannot be seen as reasons for action.

Action is a course of behavior in everyday life. It is also known as the flow of intentional action.

As intentional action , called Giddens that an agent knows or believes to know that his action has a specific, desired result.

In contrast to this, non-intentional action is action in which the agent is aware of his action, but cannot assess the (late) consequences, he can only influence them.

Action can also have unintended consequences, which can then be entered again through a feedback process as unrecognized / unconscious conditions for further action.

Of course there is also intentional action - most of the time, actions are not consciously intended. Action does not refer to the individual's intention to do something, but to the ability to do something at all. It is a continuous process, a stream in which the actor's reflexivity becomes clear. Actors relate to rules and resources.

Action and power

There is a logical connection between action and power. Acting consciously also means being able to act 'differently'. Action therefore also depends on the ability / willpower of the agent. Thus the exercise of power is also dependent on the abilities.

There are two faces of power: on the one hand, the agent's ability to control his behavior in terms of his or her imagination; on the other hand, there is power between social systems (e.g. institutions, societies) that exist over time and space as autonomy and dependency in contexts of interaction Have prerequisites for their existence.

Core of the idea of ​​structuring

The term structure was the title of structuralism and was in the first place among functionalists, who used it as an unquestionably acceptable term. It was mentioned as a pattern for structuring social relationships, as a kind of framework for social relationships. Giddens presents this usage as insufficient for a social theory.

Structures are both the basis and the result of social action. Giddens sees structure as an organized mountain of rules and resources, as a spatiotemporal phenomenon. Giddens calls structuring those conditions that determine the change or the existence of structures and the reproduction of social systems. Social actors constantly produce and reproduce structures, they act according to rules that are used in the execution of social practices, i.e. according to generalized procedures.

Rules can be established laws (formally codified rules) that are also sanctioned (abstract rules). But they can also be such 'everyday rules / procedural rules' that the actor accepts without contradiction. Social actors routinely act according to fixed rules in their everyday life, so they have incorporated them into their knowledge and are able to master almost any situation with the help of the mostly subconsciously retrieved rules. So they are implicated in the reproduction of social systems. Practices in social life are organized by sets of rules and serve to maintain a structured social system.

Giddens describes resources as the way in which transformational relationships are involved in the production and reproduction of social practices. So they are the possibility to which actors can refer in their goal realization. It is important to what extent the actor can mobilize his resources, since Giddens assumes that an actor can interpret rules in conflict situations. Giddens distinguishes between allocative and authoritative resources. Allocative resources refer to forms of the ability to transform, the domination of objects and material phenomena. They are derived from man's rule over nature. Authoritative resources refer to the wealth that enables people or actors to be ruled over.

Rules and resources are involved in the production and reproduction of social action.

Giddens calls activities with the greatest possible stability over time and space as institutions . Institutionalized practices are most relevant to research in the social sciences. They are responsible for the structuring of everyday actions and influence it. But Giddens also explains that the simple procedural rules that the actors involved in social action encounter every day have a lasting effect on their social behavior.

Examples

Giddens gives the following example: When learning a foreign language, the goal is to speak it as correctly as possible. Hence, grammatical rules are used in speaking. This is the learner's intended and actual goal. The unintended consequence, however, is that this contributes to the durability and spread of this foreign language. The structure was produced and reproduced.

In our social structure, waste paper and plastic waste were considered waste materials for years and were disposed of. Today you can see raw materials and other production resources in them, which changes our subsequent actions.

criticism

• The definitions of the terms are indefinite, imprecise and sometimes contradicting themselves.
• Giddens uses terms from hermeneutics or interpretative sociology on the one hand, and structuralist or functionalist theoretical approaches on the other. That is why he is accused of eclecticism .
• There is hardly any empirical work or findings.

Conclusion

Gidden's theory provides the first starting point for mediating between structuralism and theories of action . It is neither a ready-made nor a user-friendly concept. The structuring theory, however, offers a broader approach to dealing with the problems of the social sciences and linking old and new solution concepts. In addition, it can represent a suitable basis for reflecting on structures and processes in the area of ​​organizational design or organizational development.

literature

• Anthony Giddens : The Constitution of Society. University of California Press 1984, ISBN 0-520-05728-7
• Anthony Giddens: The Constitution of Society. Fundamentals of a theory of structuring , Frankfurt am Main 1984, pp. 51–90.
• Peter Walgenbach : Giddens' theory of structuring. In: Alfred Kieser (ed.): Organization theories. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1999, pp. 355-376, ISBN 3-17-017917-9
• Alfred Kieser, Peter Walgenbach: Organization. Schäffer-Poeschel, Stuttgart 2003, pp. 62-64, ISBN 3-7910-2242-3
• Günther Ortmann, Jörg Sydow (Hrsg.): Strategy and structuring - strategic management of companies, networks and groups. Business publisher Dr. Th. Gabler GmbH, Wiesbaden 2001, pp. 31-37, ISBN 3-409-11815-2