History of Anatolia
The history of Anatolia, together with the prehistory , which can be documented by fossils of the genus Homo and stone age tool finds, goes back more than a million years. For example, in the prehistoric deposits of the Gediz River, the oldest reliably dated Stone Age tool on Turkish soil was discovered, a worked fragment around 1.2 million years old. These early inhabitants - they are usually referred to as Homo erectus in the professional world - were later followed by the Neanderthals and finally by anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens). Its early hunter-gatherer cultures disappeared around 12,000 years ago.
The fertile crescent , in which around 11,000 BC The Neolithic revolution began, is to a small extent on Turkish territory; Boncuklu and Pınarbaşı are the oldest Anatolian sites that were found between 8500 and 8000 BC. Chr. Settlement and a long-term inhabited settlement can be proven. Monumental architecture and a large-scale exchange of obsidian emerged early on . From 8300 BC BC began the expansion of the way of life, which was characterized by agriculture, livestock and stockpiling, as well as villages, towards the west. The most famous excavation site is Çatalhöyük (7400-6200 BC), a protourbane settlement. During the late Copper Age (up to 3000 BC) there was a massive increase in settlement activity, so that thousands of villages were accepted. The post-Copper Age settlements in Southeast Anatolia, however, were considerably smaller, much more scattered, and mostly they were newly founded. The early Bronze Age on the Anatolian plateau, on the other hand, is considered to be a time of increased "urbanization", the first domains emerged. The use of metals is considered to be one of the most important causes of increasing centralization. Around 2000 BC A written tradition began with Assyrian sources for the first time, a rudimentary administration becomes recognizable, the cities reached considerable dimensions.
Possibly it came around 2000 BC. Through immigration to an ethnic fragmentation in the east. This phase of decline was followed by strong urban growth. In Central Anatolia, around 1600 BC. The great empire of the Indo-European Hittites , in the west the kingdom of Arzawa , which was probably inhabited by Indo-European Luwians . In the southwest the first Minoan , then Greek ( Mycenaean ) Miletus emerged . Other places on the Aegean coast, such as Iasos or Halicarnassus , were also from the late 15th century BC. BC probably settled by Mycenaean Greeks. At the beginning of the 12th century the Hittite empire collapsed, probably due to internal turmoil and the consequences of population movements and wars that affected large parts of the eastern Mediterranean. However, some of the smaller Hittite successor states continued to exist in the south and east of Anatolia until the 8th century.
The Phrygians spread from the 12th century to the east, towards Central Anatolia and possibly established an empire as early as the 11th century, which was administered from Gordion in the 9th and 8th centuries BC. BC included large parts of western and central Anatolia. Since 850 BC The empire Urartu existed in the east , at the end of the 8th century Cimmerians reached Anatolia, the 697 or 676 BC. The capital of the Phrygian empire destroyed around 644 that of the Lydians . Not until 600 BC The equestrian people were expelled from the country in the 4th century BC, but a few decades later the Persians conquered all of Asia Minor . Despite frequent clashes between Greeks and Persians, the Greek cities grew into important centers of trade and culture.
With the conquest of Anatolia by Alexander the Great , the country became a very frequent theater of war. After the collapse of the Alexander Empire, several successor states established themselves there, especially Pergamon in the west, Pontos around the Black Sea and Armenia in the east. From 133 BC. Pergamon and Pontus fell to Rome , but Armenia remained a buffer state between the Roman and Parthian empires for several centuries , which was replaced by the Persian Sassanids in AD 226 . Urbanization reached its peak in the Roman Empire. In late antiquity , Asia Minor still had over 600 cities. The early Christian groups, some of which opposed the secularization of the church, fought each other, but by the end of the 4th century non-Christians were already in the minority. By the 6th century, local landowners obtained almost unlimited power of disposal and police power by law, growing economic units demanded work and taxes from the peasants and, in a long process, turned them into unfree colonies who were tied to the clod and no longer owned free property.
The Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire triumphed over the Persians in 628 after a long war, but from 633 it lost large areas to Muslim Arabs , who also conquered the Persian Empire. At the same time, the loss of almost the entire area between the Danube and Greece to the Avars and Slavs made the remaining Anatolia the heartland of the rest of the empire. It was divided into military districts and all forces were subordinated to the defense against the Muslim armies, which repeatedly invaded Asia Minor. After around 850 the situation stabilized, from around 940 Byzantium went increasingly on the offensive, so that the extreme east of Anatolia, which owes its name to the Byzantine military district ( theme ) Anatolikon , was occupied.
Turkish Seljuks defeated an army led by the emperor in 1071. In Anatolia, around Konya in 1081, an independent Seljuk rule was established that extended to the Aegean Sea. Byzantium managed to recapture the coastal fringes, but after a heavy defeat in 1176, the rule of Constantinople began to crumble. In addition, the dispute with the Roman Church escalated from 1054 and 1204, an army of crusaders conquered the capital on the Venetian initiative. The Empire of Nikaia , founded by fugitive members of the imperial family, succeeded in stabilizing its western Anatolian rule, just as another branch succeeded in founding the Empire of Trebizond , which existed until 1460. With the recovery of Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium neglected Anatolia, which was gradually conquered by Turkish groups. Among them the Ottomans prevailed, who in 1453 succeeded in conquering the Byzantine capital, which they made Istanbul their capital . The Greek population continued to migrate to the coastal cities, Central Anatolia became an agricultural country and lost many of its cities. Lesser Armenia remained in the east until 1375 . Although the Seljuks were defeated by the Mongols in 1243 and the Ottomans by Timur's army in 1402 , this defeat could only delay the Ottomans' conquest of the Turkish Emirates.
They succeeded in conquering southeast and eastern Anatolia against Egyptian-Mamluk and Persian-Safavid resistance, but the constant warfare and excessive demands on the area resulted in uprisings. In addition, the importance of the cities continued to decline, especially since the Mediterranean trade increasingly lost importance compared to the Atlantic trade in the 17th century. The centrifugal forces increasingly dominated local politics, in the course of the 19th century the empire also lost most of the European territories and North Africa made itself independent, so that Anatolia once again became the heartland of the empire. After the First World War , the Ottoman Empire ended and the Turkish Republic was founded by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk . Although there were elections, the army staged three coups in 1960, 1971, and 1980, and a leadership made up of the military directed the country.
The largest minorities were Armenians , Greeks and Kurds , with the former facing genocide during the First World War and the Greeks being expelled from Anatolia after the war . Apart from the European part of Turkey, the state has consisted almost exclusively of Anatolia since the 1920s, where the government tried to negate ethnic conflicts, for example by making the Kurds a special form of the Turks. In 1996 parliament ended the state of emergency in the Kurdish provinces. The opening of the markets with low wages and a lot of catching up to do, together with the modernization of the organizational and infrastructure and the increase in education, led to rapid economic growth, from which the big cities in particular benefited, while soon barely a quarter of the population was living in rural areas .
Paleolithic (Paleolithic)
As much as Anatolia has gained in importance for the study of the Neolithic , the yields so far with a view to the Paleolithic have been so low . While great progress has been made in the neighboring countries of Georgia and Greece in the last few decades, Anatolia has suffered considerable neglect in this sector. Since the oldest hominine fossils to date were found north of Anatolia, in Dmanissi , Georgia , which are considered to be a possible link between the earliest representatives of the genus Homo from Africa and the later fossils of Homo erectus known from Asia , Anatolia would thus have a bridging function.
In neighboring Thrace there are mainly choppers , i.e. rubble tools, but almost no hand axes; In Anatolia hand axes can be found in all regions, but at only four sites their age can be determined on the basis of the stratigraphy (status 2009). Stone tools and bones from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic were discovered in the Karain Cave 31 km northwest of Antalya , including hand axes. The oldest finds were dated to an age of more than 400,000 years. Also datable hand axes were found at two sites near Şehremuz Sırtı north of Samsat in Southeast Anatolia ( A 5 and A 10 ), which could be assigned to the Acheuléen . The density of finds is greater on the upper Euphrates and on the Tigris as well as in the Hatay province .
In 1984 the first hand ax was found on the Euphrates near Şanlıurfa and thus the first evidence of the presence of people in the Paleolithic, even though the first hand ax was discovered in 1907 near Gaziantep . The first Central Anatolian excavation site to unearth finds from the Acheuléen was Kaletepe Deresi 3, discovered in 2000 near Kömürcü in Cappadocia ; they reach an age of about 800,000 years. In the area of the over 2100 m high Göllü Dağ , which is characterized by strong volcanic activity , obsidian stores were located, which attracted hunters and gatherers early on, who processed the glass-like material into weapons and tools. There were Chopper , Cleaver ( cleaver ) and hand axes . Tools that were made using the Levallois technique and are accordingly assigned to the Middle Paleolithic are also known. Only the lower jaw of an extinct horse species and a few teeth were found on animal remains. The older finds go back to Homo erectus . In 1940 a hand ax was found at Pendik in the Istanbul area , which was assigned to the Abbevillien , on the east side of the Bosporus a hand ax was found in three places near Göksu.
For the period between 40,000 and 26,000 BC There are relatively numerous finds between the Marmara region and Hatay, but after that there is a gap of six millennia. Accordingly, the Gravettia industry is completely absent .
During the largest Würm Age glaciation around 28,000 to 20,000 BC. In BC, the Mediterranean sea level was 100 to 130 m lower than it is today. The subsequent increase was caused by the melting of the ice masses, which dragged on for thousands of years. Since this process was not linear, the reconstruction of past coastlines is a complex task, whereby, in contrast to other regions, the land uplift and subsidence was rather small. The strong fluctuations in sea level destroyed prehistoric settlements, especially in the coastal plains, for example in Cilicia and the Antalya region . In the Aegean Sea , what is now the Greek islands were often part of the mainland, and when the sea level rose, the floods reached up to 70 km inland. The course in the Black Sea , whose connection to the Mediterranean did not exist continuously, is much more complicated .
The last time it happened was in the Younger Dryas between 10,730 and 9700/9600 BC. Chr. To a strong, global cooling.
Epipalaeolithic (approx. 20,000–10,000 BC)
For a long time only two sites in Anatolia could possibly be assigned to the Epipalaeolithic , the age that immediately preceded settling and agriculture and grazing. However, the Pınarbaşı site , an abri , has a camp of shepherds and hunters who settled in the 7th millennium BC. Stayed here. Among them were traces that could be dated to at least the 9th millennium. The hunters erected lightweight protective walls made of thatch that they found in the nearby lake. 90% of the obsidian they used came from Cappadocia . Microliths in particular were used, and stone tools were apparently brought along. Some burials contained numerous shells from the Mediterranean.
Characteristic of the Epipalaeolithic are the microlithic industries, which continued to exist in some regions of Anatolia afterwards. In addition, there was a recognizable cultural differentiation between the various regions for the first time. The most important survival strategy consisted of mobility and the use of resources, which are often far apart. In some favorable places there have already been repeated longer stays depending on the seasonal cycles. The hunter-gatherer societies, however, have long been neglected in favor of research into the earliest agriculture or the emergence of early urban settlement types. There is no recognizable demarcation from the Mesolithic on the basis of the finds .
As everywhere in Anatolia, wild plants were collected, such as pistachios , the fruits of the hackberry tree , raisins, pears, almonds and possibly already olives, traces of which can be found in caves such as Beldibi, Karain B (not to be confused with the Karain cave ) or Öküzini in the west and found north of Antalya. Grain was of little importance. Also at the most important site, the Öküzini Cave, whose oldest finds date from 23,000 to 15,000 BC. Kebaran culture dated to the 4th century BC and which lies at the foot of the 1715 m high Geyik sivirsi, no traces of grain were found. The cave mainly contains remains from the period between around 20,000 and 7500 BC. Chr.
While it was previously assumed that the sedentary way of life went back to the influence of the Mesopotamian PPNA , it is now assumed that it developed independently on the Central Anatolian plateau, which culminated in the Central Anatolian Neolithic (CAN).
In the area of the Black Sea, formerly an inland lake, many settlements are likely to have been destroyed when the Mediterranean collapsed over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus and the water level rose. The details are controversial, however. The oldest finds of marine animals in the Black Sea date to around 5500 BC. For more see Black Sea .
Neolithic (New Stone Age)
Thanks to intensive research on the question of the transformation of hunter-gatherer societies into societies that produced their own food, a clearer picture can be drawn from the 10th millennium onwards. Around 9000 BC The Neolithic Revolution began , which was characterized by agriculture, cattle breeding and village lifestyles, including urbanization. For a long time, apart from the areas bordering the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia played no role in European history either as a place of origin or as the beginning of food production. For some time, however, the core region of the earliest Neolithic, the Fertile Crescent, has been expanded to include the south-east of Central Anatolia. The borders to the west and north are still unclear. In any case, the Neolithic remained in this core region for a long time.
After the expansion towards western Anatolia, the Aegean region, Thrace and Bulgaria as well as northern Greece, a new core zone was created here. Western Anatolia became a contact zone. Between 1992 and 2012, 26 new sites were excavated in western Turkey, allowing the western expansion to date between 7400 and 7100 BC. To date, possibly even a little earlier. The sea route for some cultural transfers into the Aegean, such as Impresso ceramics, which was unknown in the hinterland, is made probable through excavations in Ege Gübre in Izmir, as well as through Neolithic finds in Cyprus and Crete. The same applies to Hoca Çeşme (around 6400 BC) on the west coast, which contained ceramics typical of the hinterland, but also circular buildings that cannot be found outside the coastal region. One can therefore assume a sea route close to the coast that connected the Levant with the Balkans. The so-called “Neolithic package”, a group of marks, i.e. goods and animals that were carried with them, developed. The animal races and plant species that were brought along - especially grains - came from the area of origin, as has been proven genetically. In addition, there were certain types of pottery that are characteristic.
A first phase of expansion towards the Balkans can be seen around 6500 to 6400 BC. Grasp. It is noticeable that practical items were carried along with cattle, but ritual, ceremonial and prestige objects were not. So it could have been a split without the elites and priests. One of the most important cultures that can be assigned to this process is the culture of Fikirtepe (6450–6100 BC), which has been documented in more than 25 sites. The locations in the hinterland, such as Ilıpınar or Menteşe Höyük , have rectangular houses, as were typical for Central Anatolia, while the coastal houses were round or oval. The latter applies to Fikirtepe , Pendik , İstanbul Yenikapı and Aktopraklık . While tombs lay outside the walls in the hinterland, they were found under the huts on the coast. Burning the dead on hills, like in Yenikapı, was completely unknown in the hinterland. Possibly it was a question of a westward movement in the hinterland, while on the coast there was a mixture with the life forms existing there - with immigration via sea. The next, relatively rapid wave of propagation reached the entire Balkans.
Excavations in Tepecik-Çiftlik and Köşk Höyük in eastern Central Anatolia indicate that the widespread types of ceramic processing - certain types of figurines, animal or human-shaped vessels, etc. - come from this region. The new settlers preferred river valleys and well-irrigated plains and avoided hills and plateaus. More than 100 sites can be assigned to this phase between Central Anatolia and the Aegean coast. In contrast, the eastern Marmara region remained unaffected. There the Fikirtepe culture was followed by the culture of Yarımburgaz 4 . The second wave of those moving westward did not cross the Bosphorus , but circled the cultures of Yarımburgaz 4 and 3 and thus the area around Istanbul, which belonged to this culture, around the Sea of Marmara further west.
Southeast Anatolia
The oldest secured Neolithic settlements in Southeast Anatolia were found on Batman, a tributary of the Upper Tigris . Of them turn Hallan Cemi the oldest, it was the last centuries of the 11th millennium BP dated. Demirköy , about 40 km downstream, is only a little younger and is ascribed to the first century of the 10th millennium BP . Another 20 km downstream is Körtik , already close to the confluence of the Batman and Tigris rivers. The three settlements were probably inhabited by one and the same group one after the other. The groups of finds go back to the Zarzien culture , for which the period between 18,000 and 8,000 BC. And which was a highly developed hunter-gatherer culture. The Neolithic settlements had close ties to sites around Mosul .
Only in Hallan Çemi and Demirköy were traces of elliptical structures made of stone, wickerwork and grout (the latter at least in Hallan Çemi). Two larger structures were found, with the skull of an aurochs hanging over the entrance of one of the two buildings . The buildings also had materials from far away areas, such as four small lumps of copper ore or obsidian from the area around Bingöl and Van , which was probably processed in the “aurochs skull house”. In Hallan Çemi there was also a larger square surrounded by fire-blown stones and animal bones. Some of the stone vessels could be related to this "fairground"; apparently food was being prepared in them.
In contrast to the later, Neolithic sites, in these proto-Neolithic settlements on Batman, the dead were buried outside, for example in caves. In Demirköy, on the other hand, the dead found their final resting place within the village, albeit without any additions. These only appear in Körtik, such as stone vessels and pearls. Two buried dogs were found in Demirköy, as well as burnt bricks were found here for the first time.
At least for Hallan Çemi, first attempts at animal husbandry - of pigs - can be shown, which were replaced by goats in Demirköy . Apparently, wild grain was not harvested; it was rather nuts, legumes or the seeds of common beach cornices . So it was still experimented with different resources; Attempts that still depend heavily on local adjustments and run counter to the idea that it was an ongoing process of domestication.
Çayönü is about 125 kilometers above the Batman settlements . There the development from the circular buildings of an early farming settlement from the 10th millennium to a large settlement with rectangular, then differentiated buildings in the 9th to the beginning of the 7th millennium can be documented. Around 9500 to 9200 BP , the culture there changed in a different direction.
With Göbekli Tepe , the finds condense into a more precise picture. There originated around 10,500 BC. A mountain sanctuary, which is probably the oldest known temple complex. The curvilinear building was built on previously undeveloped land. Up to 500 people were required during construction to break the 10 to 20 tons, in extreme cases even 50 tons, in the quarries in the area and to transport them 100 to 500 m. These monumental, T-shaped pillars have reliefs in the shape of animals and humans. The dead were buried in this ossuary , but they were not given stone vessels as in Körtik. So far no residential buildings have been found, but "special buildings" that probably served ritual gatherings. At the beginning of the 8th millennium, the settlement lost its importance, but it was not simply forgotten, but was covered with 300–500 m³ of earth for unknown reasons.
Several settlements were found in the Euphrates region, including Cafer Höyük , which existed between the last centuries of the 10th millennium BP and around 8000 BP . The equally pre-ceramic, at the same time Neolithic, Nevalı Çori , whose oldest find dates back to the 10th millennium, is of similar importance , as are finds from Çayönü in the Tauros, which also include large sculptures.
Not only figurines were made from clay, as in Demirköy, but also vessels. Five excavation sites of this ceramic Neolithic can be found in southeastern Anatolia: Çayönü , Sumaki (the closest tributary of the Tigris downstream, the Garzan) and Salat Cami Yanı in the Tigris region and Mezraa-Teleilat and Akarçay Tepe in the Euphrates region. In Çayönü, the wattle and daub buildings were replaced by stone houses in the more recent phase. Settlement continuity can also be demonstrated for Mezraa-Teleilat. Overall, the ceramic phase of the Neolithic is characterized by smaller settlements than the preceding, pre-ceramic phase, in which monumental buildings were built in some settlements. It was not until the subsequent Halaf period that large settlements reappeared.
Central Anatolian Plateau
The earliest Neolithic Anatolia ( Pre-Ceramic Neolithic A ) knows no (or very little) ceramics, but already permanent settlements with round houses made of stone ( Nevali Cori , Göbekli Tepe ). In the following Pre-Ceramic Neolithic B , rectangular houses came into use. Clay was made into statuettes and sometimes also fired, but no vessels were made from this material yet.
Some sites show the gradual transition to the typical Neolithic way of life. Pınarbaşı is the oldest Anatolian site, dating from 8500 to 8000 BC. Was permanently inhabited for a long time. Half of the houses under the surface of the earth had wattle and daub above ground. The floors were plastered, and some were probably decorated with red ocher . The inhabitants made their living from hunting, especially for aurochs and solipeds , but also fishing and collecting wild plants such as pistachios and almonds . Obsidian and flint were fetched from afar and worked on site.
20 km from Pınarbaşı and 9 km from Çatalhöyük is the Boncuklu site , which is also culturally between the two sites. There were colored paintings that are similar to those in Çatalhöyük, as well as obsidian from Cappadocia - especially from Nenezi and Kayırlı , two of the main deposits - and Mediterranean shells (as in Pınarbaşı).
Also in the 9th millennium BC BC belongs to Aşıklı Höyük in Cappadocia . Between 8400 and 7400 BC BC to 6500 BC A year-round inhabited settlement existed here on Melendiz . After they finally settled down, buildings appeared that apparently took on special functions. The group of houses in the north of the hill, which had two to three rooms and looked very similar to one another, were made of adobe bricks , clay slabs and mortar. They had connecting doors, but no external doors, so that it is assumed that they were entered with wooden ladders via the flat roofs. New buildings were built on top of the old ones, the remains of which were recycled. This resulted in a total of ten construction phases. The houses south of the four-meter-wide street that separated the two parts of the settlement were made of different materials and had paintings. In addition, cultivated plants such as einkorn , emmer and barley , wheat and durum wheat appeared for the first time , although the hunting and collecting of wild plants continued. The burial places were inside the houses under the floors. On the opposite side of the Melendiz was Musular (7500-6500 BC), which was probably built by the residents of Aşık Höyüks. Blades and hunting weapons such as arrowheads were apparently made there, but most of all animals were slaughtered and cut up, and the site may have served ritual purposes. Because of this close connection to Aşık Höyük, one also speaks of the Aşık-Musular-Complex.
One of the most important sources of obsidian was the 1600 m high Kaletepe at the foot of the Göllü Dağ . The settlement can be traced back to the time between 8200 and 7800 BC. To date. Large quantities of preliminary products for the coveted obsidian blades were found there, so that one can assume that there will be widespread trade, which is also supported by the highly standardized cores and blocks. However, neither the technology nor the products existed on the surrounding plateau, but in the area of the Pre-Ceramic Neolithic B of the Euphrates region and on Cyprus . Hence, speculations arose that less Anatolian and more Levantine craftsmen lived here.
Examples of the oldest Neolithic ceramics are known from Çatalhöyük (7400-6200 BC) and Mersin . Çatalhöyük is considered to be the oldest city in the world. It covered an unusually large area of over 13 hectares, so that several thousand inhabitants must be expected. Domesticated sheep and goats now provided the majority of animal food, and there was still hunting and fishing as well as collecting activities in a rich flora. There were no buildings with special functions and only a few streets or passageways. Here, too, access to the house is likely to have taken place via flat roofs, the houses mostly had a main room and a few ancillary rooms, probably for supplies. A distinction can be made between benches, ovens and stoves, garbage pits and pillars. There were paintings, reliefs, decorated cattle horns, figurines and "history houses" with numerous burials. Around 6200 to 6000 BC The city was moved from the east to the west hill.
Expansion and “Second Neolithic Revolution”, two main hiking trails
Less attention was paid to the advanced Neolithic phase, sometimes referred to as the “ second Neolithic revolution ”, in which, in addition to the animal as a mere supplier of meat, other possibilities of animal use appeared, be it the production of wool, eggs and milk or the use as carrying and draft animals as well as a supplier of construction and heating material (manure). This phase also saw the expansion of the area in which people lived in this way, beyond south and south-east Anatolia to all of Anatolia and towards Greece and the Balkans. In the first half of the 7th millennium BC, Knossos on Crete was the only Neolithic settlement on the whole island. Around 6500 settlements also appear on other Aegean islands.
Genetic studies on the oldest Neolithic human remains in Greece have shown that the mainland Greek settlers were more closely related to those in the Balkans, while the inhabitants of the islands were closer to the inhabitants of central and especially Mediterranean Anatolia. In addition to studies on bread or common wheat , this indicates that there was a split in the settlers towards northern Greece and the Balkans or towards Crete and southern Italy, which already occurred in the early Neolithic. Therefore, common wheat is almost characteristic of the southern Anatolian, Cretan and Italian groups. In all likelihood they were moving across the sea. In terms of spread, if one follows further genetic studies, reproductive advantages over the respective neighboring hunter-gatherer societies seem to have played a decisive role.
Numerous early Neolithic settlements are located on the Beyşehir and Suğla lakes in the south of central Anatolia, for example Erbaba . This settlement was dated from 6700 to 6400 BC. Dated. The hill has an area of about 5.5 hectares. No streets separated the houses from one another.
Chalcolithic (Copper Age, approx. 6100-3000 BC)
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The Chalcolithic period of Anatolia is characterized by multicolored painted ceramics. The early part of the Copper Age is around 6100 to 5500 BC. The oldest copper objects in the form of pearls come from Cayönü Tepesi and date back to between 8200 and 7500 BC. BC back. Above all, the settlement of Hacılar Höyük is known , the oldest layers of which belonged to the pre-ceramic Neolithic and date back to the eighth millennium BC. To date. In Layer VI (5600 BC) there were nine buildings made of adobe bricks, which were grouped around a large square. The inhabitants lived on emmer, einkorn, wheat, barley and peas as well as on beef, pork, sheep and goat. Dogs were also kept. Numerous clay figurines represent women. The settlement of layer I (around 5000 BC) was probably inhabited by newcomers who walled the place. The ceramics are finely crafted and mostly painted red on white. In the meantime, studies refute the image of a uniform transition to multi-colored painting, because it has also been proven in older, Neolithic sites such as Höyücek .
A distinction is made between the early Copper Age (5500-4000 BC) and the Late Copper Age (4000-3000 BC). First of all, the term Copper Age was supposed to mean nothing else than that in the three-stage model (Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages) there was a time between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age when copper was used. But the terms accumulated over time, which concerned the temporal delimitation - copper was already found in the ceramic Neolithic - but also the dominance of the material itself. Now the said colored painted pottery was considered characteristic, but there are only a few regions from the Middle and Late Copper Age in which this type of processing was in use. While the beginning of the Copper Age with its transition to the aforementioned ceramics, which was significant for archaeologists, was hardly perceived as a turning point for contemporaries, on the contrary, this may be all the more true for the time around 5500 BC. Were valid for the beginning of the Middle Copper Age, because many of the old settlements were abandoned. In addition, the Marmara region only adopted a permanent sedentary way of life and cultivation of the soil in the late Copper Age; the same applies to parts of the Aegean region. There developed in the 1st half of the 4th millennium BC A first settlement ( Milet I).
Çatalhöyük was also affected by major changes. Although Çatalhöyük West, which is on the other side of the Çarşamba River, is considerably smaller than Çatalhöyük East, which is connected to the older Çatalhöyük East, it is still the largest Copper Age settlement on the southern Anatolian plateau with 8 hectares. The youngest phase of the older settlement shows great similarities with the oldest phase of the younger settlement. This could indicate a successive “move”.
In the period up to 3000 BC There was a massive increase in settlement activity, so that thousands of villages were assumed that were in close contact with one another. In the southeast, a distinction is made between the Halaf and Obed cultures, whose names are derived from Mesopotamian sites. Before this time, there were more contacts in the direction of Nemrut , because obsidian discovered in Tell Hamoukar in northeast Syria came from this 3500 m high mountain . Tombs and houses show traces of siege, but above all more than a thousand clay balls that were supposed to be used as projectiles. The city was possibly founded by Uruk around 3500 BC. Chr. Destroyed. The Sumerians later founded a trading colony there, with which the region was oriented southward.
Bronze age
The Bronze Age is recorded in western and central Anatolia from around 3000 BC. BC. However, the delimitation of the first phase (Bronze Age I, up to 2700/2600 BC) to the Copper Age is unclear, the second phase (2700/2600 to 2300 BC) is still poorly understood and the third (2300 to 2000 BC). Chr.) Goes over to the time of the first great empire in the region.
In southeastern Anatolia, the Bronze Age continued around 3400 to 3300 BC. A. The further subdivisions are controversial in this area, which is strongly influenced by Mesopotamia. The post-Copper Age settlements were considerably smaller, much more scattered, and mostly they were newly founded.
Early Bronze Age (approx. 3400/3000–2000 BC)
The early Bronze Age on the Anatolian plateau is considered to be the time of increased "urbanization", comparatively large settlements with complex structures and a wide-ranging trade network that began around 2500 BC. Chr. Can be better understood. Settlements with an area of around 8 or 9 hectares were dominated by a ruling class whose power extended into the surrounding area. This development began before the Bronze Age, for example in Troy I, Beycesultan , Karataş and Küllüoba . In the early Bronze Age, settlements such as Liman Tepe and Çadır Höyük in the northern central plateau or Tarsus and Mersin in Cilicia had hierarchical structures. The exchange intensified within their regions, which may already be considered rulers, and ceramics were increasingly created on the potter's wheel .
In western Anatolia, cemeteries were created outside the city walls in the second phase of the Early Bronze Age. For example, 500 graves were found 25 km west of Eskişehir in Demircihöyük Sariket, of which a considerable number probably represented a kind of family tomb. The village itself was only 70 meters in diameter; the megaron- type houses were arranged in a circle around a central square. In the third phase, the grave equipment and the grave goods were more expensive, which is interpreted as a sign of increasing social differentiation.
One of the most important reasons for the increasing centralization is the metal trade, which mainly took place between 2700/2600 and 2300 BC. And to which the trade in clay pots joined. Many archaeologists assume a dense trade network for this phase that stretched from the Black Sea to southeastern Anatolia. Production was boosted by tin finds in the Taurus Mountains , the ores of which found their way to western Anatolia; The aforementioned clay pots went in the opposite direction. Cities like Kültepe , whose long-distance trade in pottery reached as far as the central Euphrates, played a major role in this extensive exchange .
At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, Assyrian sources report of Luwians and Hittites in Central Anatolia who used Indo-European languages , which also included Palaic , as well as Hurrians (in northern Syria ). When and from where these groups came to Anatolia is unclear. The way in which the different populations live together is even less clear.
In Western Anatolia, the megaron appeared as an architectural mark at the beginning of the Bronze Age . Troy I began around 3000 and ended between 2600 and 2500 BC. The settlement was protected by 2.5 m thick walls, three city gates allowed entry. One of the Megaron buildings had a hall measuring 7 × 18.5 m. One of the largest settlements in Western Anatolia was Beycesultan , which dates back at least to the Copper Age. Troy II, which existed between 2700 and 2500 BC. BC, was considerably larger than the previous settlement. At least five Megaron buildings can be proven. The function of these buildings, which are very different from residential buildings, is unclear. From Troy II comes a depot that is considered the largest of this phase and was probably buried in the wake of a city fire.
Contrary to earlier assumptions, there was considerable settlement continuity between the middle and later Early Bronze Age, as has been shown by finds in Troja III, Küllüoba , Liman Tepe or Bakla Tepe . Stone houses now predominated in Troy, which was perhaps a reaction to the conflagration.
In the northern central plateau, the number of Early Bronze Age sites is considerably lower, although traces of settlement were found in Paphlagonia . The “royal tombs” of Alaca Höyük and Alışar Höyük , which were visited by the Assyrians , and the nearby Çadır Höyük are among the few sites.
In phase II of the early Bronze Age the find situation is even leaner than in phase I, although the situation on the northern plateau is still more favorable than on the southern plateau, where mainly Tarsus was productive. So far, no building remains have been discovered in Çadır Höyük, although broken fragments have been found. In Alışar, as in the earliest phase, stone-lined walls remained the rule, which also continued to consist of adobe bricks. In phase III, this region was also integrated into the whole of Anatolia-wide trade and urbanization. This is shown above all by finds from Alaca Höyük , Mahmatlar and Horoztepe . In many cities, the walls were significantly reinforced.
The 19 graves of Alaca Höyük , 14 of which the excavator referred to as “royal”, are stone boxes in which the remains of one individual, but occasionally two or three, were found. The graves were covered with wood on which cattle bones were found, which are interpreted as sacrifices. Among the grave goods were human and animal-shaped figurines, weapons, jewelry and metal and clay objects as well as the bronze standards of Alaca Höyük . The metal objects consisted of gold, silver and electron as well as copper.
Tarsus , long focused on Mesopotamia, turned shortly after 3000 BC. BC stronger to Anatolia. The causes were sought in changes in Uruk , but also in the tin finds in the Taurus Mountains. In Phase II of the Early Bronze Age, two-story houses were built, but not of the megaron type. After a devastating fire, an almost three meter thick city wall was built.
By contrast, found themselves in Bademağacı , about 50 km from the center of Antalya removed traces a circular hilltop village, which consisted of 70 to 90 buildings. Clay seal fragments suggest rudimentary administration. Kaneš , located 21 km northeast of Kayseri , which was mainly in the 2nd millennium BC. As early as the end of the Early Bronze Age, it was an important trading center. Its largest monumental building from this period measured 20 × 22 m.
In the northern Euphrates valley , Arslantepe , Kurban Höyük and Hassek Höyük , which had already existed in the Copper Age, continued to exist. Lidar , Hassek 5 and Tirtis Höyük were surrounded by thick city walls. There were only very small settlements south of these cities.
Rituals were performed on high platforms, such as in Surtepe and Tilbes Höyük . At Gre Virike there was a 1750 m² platform with monumental graves, similar to the one on the central Euphrates in Syria. In many settlements there were cemeteries outside the walls, as in the west there were also stone boxes ( Zeytinli Bahçe Höyük ) with rich grave goods (Birecik).
The middle phase of the Early Bronze Age is generally around 2700 to 2400 BC. BC. Titriş Höyük covered an area of 35 ha. Tilbeşar III B reached similar dimensions with 30 ha, which had a lower town where olive oil and wine were produced.
The later phase is mostly around 2400 to 2100 BC. BC, but appears around 2600 to 2200 BC. BC already a recognizable hierarchy between urban centers, smaller towns and villages. The above-mentioned centers on the upper Euphrates, which now housed lower towns, have a pronounced social stratification. Titriş Höyük grew to 43 hectares and apparently farms within a radius of 4 to 5 km were part of the city's sphere of influence. A ceramic workshop was found in Lidar; there was a separate artisan quarter. Tilbeşar III C covered an area of 56 hectares and olive oil and wine were also produced here. In Titriş Höyük houses with a floor area of up to 200 m² with 10 to 15 rooms were built. Extended families lived in these large households, and some had storehouses for grain.
After Naram-sin around 2200 BC. Chr. Ebla had destroyed, the form of settlement changed. Tilbeşar III D was abandoned and the dominant urban centers began to decline in the southern part of the central Euphrates region, combined with increasing migration to the smaller towns. Before 2000 BC The monumental tombs disappeared. In addition, the quality of metalworking decreased. Also on the Tigris can be seen around 2200 BC. Show a decline of the larger centers. Important trade routes may have been relocated south. Naram-Sin had a palace built on Tell Brak , now in the far north-east of Syria, from which the Chabur trade route should be controlled. There was a stele of the Akkadian ruler.
In Eastern Anatolia the situation is even more complicated. There the early Bronze Age culture is also referred to as the early Transcaucasian culture, as it is assumed that many cultural features originated in the area of the Caucasus . The ceramics there did not appear until the end of the 4th millennium, while previously only the red and black goods predominated. It is found from around 3500 BC. In Arslantepe VII, Sos Höyük VA and Çadır Höyük and possibly comes from Central Anatolia. Metal finds and transportable stoves, on the other hand, have their origin in the region north of the Caucasus.
Today it is assumed that the recognizable migratory movement was part of a movement from the southern Caucasus to the Levant. Another characteristic of this culture is the fact that it could coexist with other cultures, which finds from the area around Elazığ and Malatya show. In the upper Euphrates valley, Transcaucasian and Syro-Mesopotamian cultures alternated between 3300 and 2800 BC. Several times from. On the other hand, Pulur-Sakyol and Norşuntepe , one of which was Transcaucasian and the other Syro-Mesopotamian, coexisted.
The royal tomb of Arslantepe , discovered in 1996, is symptomatic of the simultaneity of these cultures with regard to ceramics ; on the other hand, the metal finds point to a Transcaucasian origin. While there was a reorientation from Mesopotamia to Anatolia at the end of the 4th millennium in the south, i.e. on the upper Euphrates, which at that time was still densely forested, the northeast developed more evenly on the basis of autochthonous cultures. It is noticeable that sheep and goats abruptly displaced other herd animals, such as in Arslantepe. In contrast, the relationship between the domestic animal populations in the Erzurum region did not change. Another factor contributing to the confusing diversity in Eastern Anatolia is that different house and settlement types existed at the same time. Also in the Erzurum area at the end of the Early Bronze Age there are no cultural breaks, but rather signs of great continuity. Quite different around Lake Van, where a sharp cultural break can be observed; apparently there was an extensive reputation here.
Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 BC)
The Middle Bronze Age of Anatolia is usually divided into two phases, which are provided with Latin numbers. The Middle Bronze Age I extends from about 2000 to 1800 BC. Chr., II joins and extends to 1600 BC. Phase I is best understood by the Assyrian traders present in Anatolia, who left numerous seal impressions and business letters, which for the first time allow insights into the political, social and economic situation of some parts of Anatolia. Phase II, however, is characterized by the early, first Anatolian empire, that of the Hittites .
Central Anatolia, Assyrians
The Middle Bronze Age offers extensive written sources for the first time. This is due to the fact that traders from Assur (Aššur) had built up a trade network and went to Anatolia for this purpose. The Karum period in southeastern Anatolia received its name from these bases, which were named Karum after the Akkadian word for port or quay . There one understood by it the dealer colony or its main building. The period ranged from around 1950 to 1800 BC. The main trading center for fabrics, tin and silver was Kaneš , today's Kültepe, 20 km northeast of Kayseri , which extended over an area of 50 hectares. More than 24,000 seal impressions have been found in Anatolia from this period.
Southwest of the Tuz Gölü , the number of Middle Bronze Age sites is extremely small, although Assyrian seal impressions with cuneiform were also found in Karaböyük Konya, which also extended over 50 hectares. Larger urban centers were located around the Tuz Gölü. This includes Acemhöyük , one of the largest Middle Bronze Age sites, which is located on a hill southeast of the lake. The city with an area of 56 hectares was destroyed by a conflagration. Two palaces date from the Karum period, but no Assyrian trading district can be proven. On the other hand, there were seal impressions of King Šamši-Adad I.
Alışar Höyük in the southeast of the Yozgat province measured 28 hectares and was inhabited from the 4th to the 1st millennium. Traces of fire indicate destruction at the end of the Bronze Age. In addition to this later Hittite provincial town, Ḫattuša was especially important. Overall, Mesopotamian-Assyrian influence made itself felt in artistic production, in commercial goods and in the standardization of measurements and weights, but also in funeral rituals. Thus, according to Assyrian custom, the dead were buried under the floor of the house. Stamp seals of the Anatolian tradition remained in use, but cylinder seals now predominated.
For the first time we learn something about political history. A list of names of Assyrian kings was found in Kültepe, which ranges from Erišum I to Naram-Sin , i.e. perhaps from 1974 to 1819 BC. Most of the texts, however, offer very few names of Anatolian rulers, such as Waršama, the king of Kaniš.
The regions into which the Assyrians had insight were politically highly fragmented. Many independent, fortified cities formed small states, while some larger cities also dominated their surrounding areas. In addition, there were vassal states such as Mamma and Kaniš. Karum were in 20 cities, the smaller Wahartum in 15 other cities. Some of the bases further to the west were founded in the 18th century BC. Abandoned. Kaniš, the headquarters of Assyrian trade, expanded its sphere of influence from 10 to perhaps 20 villages in the area. The city-states were ruled by "princes" who belonged to dynasties. Because fights between cities could hinder trade, they were mentioned many times in letters from traders, as well as existing coalitions of several cities. A merchant colony had to leave the city if the opposing city required it or if there were unrest and uprisings.
In the later phase of the ancient Assyrian trade the kings of Kaniš can be named: Ḫurmeli, Ḫarpatiwa, Inar and his son and successor Waršama, Pitḫana, who conquered Kaniš and took Waršama prisoner, and his son Anitta, who is already referred to as the "Great King" was, as well as Zuzu, who also carried this title after he had also conquered the city. Behind these struggles hid not only a political and military power, but also a differentiated state apparatus. The sources differentiate between about 50 titles at court. The highest titles were held by the prince and royal couple who ran the state. A rabbi sikktim was responsible for the military and trade, and responsibilities had evolved from ceremonial offices. The lord of the workers led title holders who directed individual trades, such as the blacksmiths or the walkers.
The palace itself was landowner, as were the holders of the aforementioned titles. Apparently the townspeople were no more landowners than the foreign traders, so they were dependent on the market. Some properties were permanently obliged to perform certain services, others had characteristics of private property, and still others were domains. Common land ownership was common. Each landowner had to give part of his harvest to the palace. Some of the small farmers had to borrow grain to get through the year, while some dignitaries owned entire villages. Most of the land was planted with barley and wheat, although a total of twelve types of grain were known. Storehouses apparently existed, the palace knew a "lord of the storerooms". The grain was mainly consumed as bread or porridge, barley was processed into beer. Sesame oil was used for food preparation, but also for lighting. Forage, vegetables and fruit were planted in the gardens; Wine and spices were produced. The irrigated fields were subject to tax, and a corresponding “lord of the irrigated fields” was responsible. Sheep and goats were kept on the domains, whose milk, wool and meat were sold by the palace.
The Assyrian caravans - protected against taxes from the kings - found safe and adequately equipped caravanserais and rest stops. They brought Mesopotamian goods, which they exchanged mainly for gold and silver, which they were allowed to purchase at four locations. One shekel of gold (8.3 g) was equivalent to 6 to 8 shekels of silver. Copper was used for smaller purchases. It was mainly extracted from the Black Sea, in the area of the Kizil Irmak or near Ergani, in order to be transported southwards as bars or in another form. The caravans also brought tin from northwestern Iran and Uzbekistan to Anatolia, so that there was considerable dependence here. The metal was only processed into bronze in Anatolia. Iron, on the other hand, was very rare and was brought from Assyria or came from small mines in Anatolia.
The residents of Kaniš were allowed to buy grain, slaves and everyday necessities at the local markets, but they were only allowed to buy fabrics and pewter from the palace. While in the earlier phase of the Assyrian activity in Kaniš the Anatolians were often indebted to them, this situation seems to have been reversed. Now Assyrians were often indebted to other residents of the city and some became debt slaves. Most of the residents were farmers or shepherds, although the latter were free, but belonged to the poor. Some of the peasants did a kind of forced labor. The slaves were mostly debt slaves who had sold themselves or who had been sold by their parents. By paying twice the purchase price, often more, they could be freed again.
Bilingualism seems to have been the norm among the Assyrians, only the palace knew interpreters. Apparently the Assyrians introduced the script to Anatolia. In at least one case, an Anatolian king adopted the script and language of the immigrants in his documents. The Assyrians, for their part, used a simplified written form; conversely, the Assyrians adapted Hittite terms.
Men and women owned their goods together. Both had the right to get a divorce, for which a formal contract was drawn up in the palace. The children together could stay with their mother or father. If an Anatolian got into debt, he could mortgage his wife and children. The Assyrians of the first generation mostly returned to their homeland, but those who followed often married in Anatolia - on the condition that they did not live in the same house - a second wife besides the one in Assyria. Some divorce contracts show that the men sometimes returned to Assyria to their first wife, with the Anatolian woman keeping the house and the man remaining in charge of child support.
Southeast and Eastern Anatolia
Around 2000 BC On the one hand, the climate was unfavorable for agrarian societies; on the other hand, immigration led to ethnic fragmentation. During the Middle Bronze Age, the south-east and east of Anatolia were much more closely integrated into the more extensive trade network, and the urban centers also grew larger again. The Euphrates was used by traders on their way to Anatolia, so that old cities flourished again or new ones emerged along the caravan routes. Large centers were, for example, Karkemiš or Samsat . In addition, there were numerous fortress-like cities that may have been outposts of the centers. The middle-sized centers now also had their own, demarcated craft towns. Trade intensified considerably, as the archives of King Zimri-Lim of Mari or of the Assyrian King Šamši-Adad I in Šubat-Enlil (Tell Leilan) also show.
In particular, the excavations by Tilmen Höyük on İslahiye shed light on the situation in the 20 or so city-states that together made up the Kingdom of Jamchad . Like many other cities, the city was divided into a royal citadel with a palace and temples and a city, each with its own craft quarters. Tell Açana , the ancient Alalakh not far from the Orontes , had an area of 20 hectares. This city was also one of Yamchad's vassals. With 56 hectares, Tilbeşar was considerably larger and its palaces, city walls and temples increased the monumentality of the city-state architecture that characterized the entire region as far as Mesopotamia. At the same time, the influence of Cyprus, which increasingly replaced Anatolia as a supplier of copper, and Egypt increased. Trade across the Mediterranean also increased significantly, which was noticeable in the first larger ports. This influence was less further to the east, and contacts with eastern Anatolia were correspondingly more intensive.
In eastern Turkey, the settlements shrank, their number decreased drastically, the rectangular houses were much smaller. In addition to cemeteries with box graves, burial mounds or kurgans emerged , as they were typical for the entire region in the southern Caucasus.
Numerous small to medium-sized settlements emerged on the upper Tigris, sometimes specializing in certain crafts such as cloth production or clay processing. Hirbemerdon Tepe exemplifies how the cities were divided into a ceremonial and a work sphere . These two were separated from each other by a so-called plaza and a comparatively wide street. In addition, the production of wine could be proven here, which played an important role as a commodity towards Mesopotamia, but also for the ceremonial position of the palace. Nevertheless, the cities on the upper Tigris were rather small, most of them barely reached 5 hectares, and the social and administrative complexity is far behind the cities in the Cypriot-Egyptian sphere of influence. It seems that the vast majority of the population lived in small villages and delivered the surpluses to medium-sized centers such as Hirbemerdon. These centers with their specialized "industry" and the villages that provided goods and labor would therefore have been linked by rites.
Late Bronze Age (approx. 1600–1200 BC)
Western Anatolia
The history of Western Anatolia is known in fragments from Hittite texts. There, the land of Arzawa or Arzwawiya appears for the first time at the time of the Hittite king Ḫattušili I , who probably led a campaign against the country in connection with border disputes. Arzawa probably extended from the Aegean Sea to the west of the Konya plain. The Hittite king Tudḫaliya I managed to conquer Arzawa for a time. This by no means ended the wars between the two powers, as an invasion of the territory of Hittite vassals at the time of Tudḫaliyas II shows, but above all the diplomatic contacts that the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenophis III. with King Tarḫundaradu of Arzawa (the Arzawa letters from the Amarna archive found in 1887 ). Arzawa conquered parts of the Hittite Empire, but Šuppiluliuma I , the son of the Hittite king, prevailed against this coalition without being able to defeat Arzawa. Mursili II finally succeeded in conquering Arzawa. He had 65,000 or 66,000 residents deported, as he himself claimed. This was the end of the Arzawareich, whose capital was Apaša, probably identical to Ephesus , and which was founded in the 14th century BC. At times the most powerful empire in Asia Minor.
The inhabitants of Arzawa were the Indo-European Luwians. I.a. the Carians and Lycians , who are often mentioned in later Greek sources, spoke a language related to Luwian . It is unclear what the relationship between the Luwians and the still existing autochthonous , pre- Anatolian or pre-Indo-European population was.
From the end of the 14th century, after Mursili II had conquered the Arzaware empire , Arzawa was divided into several smaller empires, each of which was ruled by vassals of the Hittites. The realm of Mira succeeded Arzawa Minor , the heartland of the former Arzawareich. At the upper reaches of the meander was Kuwaliya , the capital of which probably corresponded to the current location of Beycesultan and which the Hittites tied into their sphere of power. North of Mira was Šeḫa (the river country), to which the island of Lazpa (Lesbos) also belonged. Šeḫa submitted to an invading army of Muršilis II. Finally, the Hittites bound Wiluša through a vassal contract (see also Alaksandu ), which, according to not undisputed theories, is to be connected with Ilios and therefore was part of the Troas . A king named Walmu was born around the third quarter of the 13th century BC. Overthrown by insurgents or attackers, but reinstated by Tudḫaliya IV , as can be seen in the so-called Milawata letter ( CTH 182).
Aḫḫijawa can very probably be identified with a Mycenaean empire , an assumption that initially led to the resemblance to Achaeans , one of the three names with which the Greeks were referred to by Homer . But also the geographical information about Aḫḫijawa lead many researchers to conclude that it was west of the Hittite Empire, and at least a larger part of Aḫḫijawa was beyond the west coast of Asia Minor, since its core area could apparently only be reached by sea. Whether a Mycenaean empire under the leadership of Mycenae or - as some new finds indicate - Thebes , which ruled the Greek mainland and the Aegean Sea , or possibly a smaller Mycenaean state, which was located in the southeastern Aegean region, is controversial. Aḫḫijawa had at least temporarily bases or colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. Of these, Miletus at the mouth of the Meander and the Iasos site further south are Mycenaean settlements. More extensive finds have been made, inter alia. also made in Müsgebi (near Halicarnassus ) and Ephesus , so that it is assumed that Mycenaean Greeks also lived here at times.
In Miletus there were traces of Minoan settlement from the middle (Milet III, around 2000 to 1650 BC) and the late Bronze Age (Milet IV). Mycenaean Greeks may have conquered the settlement in the first half of the 15th century. What is certain is that from around 1400 (Milet V) the city now clearly has Mycenaean characteristics. Muršili II destroyed the "Millawanda" in the west towards the end of the 14th century, which had participated in an anti-Hittite coalition of some western Anatolian principalities. The majority of researchers equate Millawanda with Miletus and associate the destruction layer of Miletus V with the report on the destruction of Millawanda. The following Miletus VI shows clearly more Hittite elements. Tudḫaliya IV. (Approx. 1240–1215 BC) possibly succeeded in completely suppressing the influence of Aḫḫijawa on the coastal cities, which seems to have grown again in the course of the 13th century. The city wall of Milets, which was built in the second half of the 13th century BC. BC, shows strong parallels to Hittite city walls, e.g. B. the one in Ḫattuša.
In some western Anatolian areas, the Hittite rule was less noticeable. Perhaps in the later north of Lydia was Maša, where apparently a council of elders ruled instead of a king. It was only conquered under the last Hittite great king Šuppiluliuma II . Karkiša was also ruled by a council of elders , which probably gave the Kariern a ruling framework. Like Maša, Karkiša sometimes fights with and sometimes against the Hittites. At Lukka it was more of a city group with common ethnic origin between Western Pamphylia , Lycaonia , Pisidia and Lycia . Their language, Lycian , has been handed down in around 200 inscriptions and is very close to Luwian . In addition, these groups show the greatest cultural continuity between Bronze Age and Iron Age groups in Anatolia.
Central Anatolia: Hittites
The Hittites established the first great empire of Anatolia. They dominated the core of the area between the Pontus and Taurus Mountains, but led conquests and raids as far as the Aegean Sea and Babylon . They called the Konya plain "the lower land", while "the upper land" was the area around the Kızılırmak river . Although descriptions of the ritual processions of the kings and, above all, of the war campaigns exist, most of the names of cities, rivers and landscapes mentioned there cannot be identified with certainty.
The capital of the empire was Ḫattuša , about 150 km east of Ankara. Around 1900 BC The Hittites set in motion a series of migrations, but they were not yet subject to any central power. Their language, which they called Nesili , belonged to the Indo-European language family. Nesili was the language of Neša ( Kültepe ), which was one of the early centers of power around which two rival empires developed. The material culture was of considerable uniformity almost from the beginning. Iron also appeared at this time for ritual objects such as the throne, the scepter or cult objects. Iron weapons appeared for the first time during the great empire, albeit very rarely; the majority of the weapons were made of bronze.
Labarna I is traditionally mentioned as the founder of the empire, but it was only under his successor Ḫattušili I that it became a large empire. He moved his capital from Kuššara to Ḫattuša and led numerous campaigns. So he destroyed the city of Zalpa at the mouth of the Kızılırmak into the Black Sea, then attacked Jamchad with the capital Halpa in Syria, which controlled the caravan routes of the tin. Ḫattušili withdrew, but destroyed several cities on his way. The following year he moved to Arzawa in the west but apparently could not do much. On the contrary, the Halpa empire attacked the Hurrites (later the Mitanni empire ) with the Hittite heartland, whereupon Anatolian vassals broke away from the Hittites. After several months of fighting, the Hurrites withdrew, and most of the vassals submitted again. During his wars, Ḫattušili resorted to diplomatic means, such as in a letter to a certain Tunip-Teššup , the lord of Tikunani , in which he wanted to persuade him to undertake a joint campaign and share the booty. Again the Hittite armed forces moved to Syria and destroyed "Zaruna" and "Hassuwa", although Halpa supported them. The only thing that is certain is that Ḫattušili crossed the Taurus Mountains and then the Euphrates . Together with the panku , a kind of aristocratic assembly or councilor, he tried to regulate the succession. He made his grandson Mursili his successor. Muršili reached the upper reaches of the Tigris, from Kizzuwatna he conquered Jamchad with the capital Halpa, finally he moved in 1595 BC. BC (middle chronology) even as far as Babylon. There he captured the statue of the god Marduk and the Kassites occupied the city. Possibly they were allied with Mursili.
Muršili I was born around 1594 BC. Murdered by his brother-in-law and cupbearer Ḫantili I , which opened a series of dynastic battles. At that time, the empire was suffering from drought and rebellions and attacks by the Hurrians. Zidanta , the king's son-in-law, who had already been among the conspirators when Mursilis was murdered, murdered his son after the death of Ḫantilis I and made himself king. But Zidanta was again murdered by his own son Ammuna . During his long reign, the empire lost not only the Syrian territories, but also the Cilician plain (Kizzuwatna) and the west. The struggles within the family did not end there. In the conspiracy inspired by Ammuna's brother Zuru against the king, who commanded the royal bodyguard, the two king sons were killed. Now Ammuna's illegitimate son Ḫuzziya II came to the throne. Telipinu , a son of King Ammuna, who had to fear for his life, now overthrew the king and ascended the throne. For reasons of dynastic legitimation, he married the sister of the murdered man. He tried to end the fighting with the Telipinu decree, which established a succession to the throne, but above all prohibited the punishment of entire clans and blood revenge. He gave the panku considerable power. He also signed a contract with Kizzuwatna, which had made itself independent. The so-called Old Kingdom ended with his death.
Under Ḫantili II attacked Kaškäer from the area between Ankara and the Black Sea Ḫatti, so that the capital had to be fortified. They were shepherds whom the Hittites mistrusted so much that they were only allowed to trade in certain cities. The clashes in Syria, in which Egypt under Thutmose III. and Mitanni played important roles. Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia was initially maintained as a buffer state between these great powers. At the same time, a significant cultural change became noticeable, especially since Tudḫaliya I , when the kings of Ḫatti often had a Hatti proper name and a Hurrian throne name, which is considered an indicator of "Hurritization". Tudḫaliya was married to the Hurricane Nikalmati, who apparently had a great influence on religious development.
Tudḫaliya's successor was Arnuwanda I (around 1400), who found himself embroiled in constant battles with Kaškaers and Isuwians . Ḫattuša was burned down under Tudḫaliya II and the Syrian territories were lost. Only Šuppiluliuma I was able to prevail against the attackers. He was a successful general and conspired after Tudḫaliya II around 1355 BC. Died and Tudḫaliya III. Had become great king, with part of the upper class, murdered the king and became great king himself.
Under his rule, the capital grew to three times its previous size. He was able to drive the Kaškäer away from the Hittite heartland. After this consolidation, conflicts arose with the Mitanni Empire under King Tušratta , who was in league with Egypt. Šuppiluliuma signed a treaty with Hajaša between Ḫatti and Mitanni , as well as with Ugarit , and he offered Babylon a marriage alliance. Thereupon a coalition of small states, which stood on Mitanni's side, attacked Ugarit. When Artatama II raised claims to the throne against Tušratta, he was supported by Assyria and Šuppiluliuma, who moved as far as the capital Waššukanni and plundered it. Šuppiluliuma crossed the Euphrates and besieged Karkemiš in vain. Then he subjugated other vassal states of the Mitanni. It was probably around this time that he signed a treaty with the Ugaritic king Niqmaddu II , who was under pressure from the Syrian cities. After the conclusion of this contract, Šuppiluliuma created a viceroyalty for his son Telipinu in Halpa . At that time, Egypt was busy with the Amarna Revolution under Akhenaten and therefore did not intervene. In another campaign, Qatna was destroyed, after which Egyptian chariots advanced against Kadesh, while forces of the Mitanni Empire attacked the Hittites in northern Syria. Around the same time Tušratta was overthrown by Mitanni, his son Šattiwazza fled to Šuppiluliuma, who married him to his daughter. Now one army moved to Mitanni, another against the Egyptians. The Dahamunzu affair symbolized the equality of the Hittite empire with that of the Egyptians. The Pharaoh's widow wanted to marry one of the sons of Šuppiluliuma. However, this conquered Karkemiš and set his son Šarri-Kušuh as viceroy. After another Egyptian embassy in the following year, Šuppiluliuma sent his son Zannanza to Egypt, who died, however, whereupon the Hittites attacked Egyptian Syria.
With the prisoners, however, came an epidemic to Ḫatti, which was still rampant under Mursili II ; Šuppiluliuma and his eldest son and successor Arnuwanda II were among their victims. Šarri-Kušuh succeeded in conquering Upper Mesopotamian territory in the war against Mitanni, but above all Šattiwazza was installed as king in Mittani, who concluded a treaty with Ḫatti. Telipinus' son and his descendants became kings of Halpa.
King Muršili II came to the throne young and faced numerous enemies. He hoped that through gifts and prayers he could move the gods to end the epidemics that plagued the country for twenty years. He believed that a strong state was in the spirit of the gods, and renovated many of their temples. Oracle told him that his father's moral offenses were the cause of the anger of the gods. In the first year he was attacked by the Kaškäer, whom he could never finally defeat, in the second year Assyria attacked Karkemiš and advanced into the Lower Land. However, he managed a victory over the Kaškäer and the conquest of Arzawa as far as the Aegean Sea. The remaining four kingdoms of Arzawa became vassals of the great empire. Mursili fought Pihhunija , the only king of the Kaškäer; he had unified the Kaškaers and invaded the Lower Country. The Hittites fended off an Egyptian attack in the battle of Karkemiš, whereby northern Syria remained under Hittite control. It was also possible to keep Ugarit in vassal status by signing a new treaty. Muršili conquered the apostate Karkemiš, installed the son of the late Šarri-Kušuḫ Šaḫurunuwa as governor and Sarruwa as ruler of Halap .
Muršili's son and successor Muwattalli II moved the capital to Tarḫuntašša in the Taurus Mountains, east of Antalya . He too came into conflict with Egypt. The battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC Chr. Brought no decision in the permanent conflict. Muwattalli's brother Ḫattušili III. concluded a peace treaty in 1259 . Muwattalli made a submission treaty with Alaksandu of Wilusa, which is perhaps identical to Troy. His successor Muršili III. moved the seat of his government back to the old capital. Mitanni conquered the Assyrians without Muršili offering the promised support; Muršili brusquely rejected the Assyrian peace offer. Ramses II moved in 1271 and 1269 BC. BC to Syria and conquered several Hittite cities, which were however regained by Šahurunuwa, the governor of Karkemiš.
Ḫattušili III. , the youngest son of Muršili II, overthrew Muršili III, but the legitimacy of the rulers had meanwhile been so firmly established that divine legitimacy was required to justify the overthrow, especially the Ištar of Šamuḫa , to whom the ailing king felt indebted. Kurunta , the younger brother of his predecessor, he procured rule over Tarḫuntašša.
Under his son Tudḫaliya IV there were clashes with the expanding Assyria under Tukulti-Ninurta I (ruled approx. 1233–1197 BC) A letter from Tukulti-Ninurta from Ugarit mentions a victory over a Hittite army in Upper Mesopotamia ( battle from Niḫrija ). In addition, Tarḫuntašša, where the capital was temporarily located, now became independent. On the other hand, Alašija (Cyprus) was conquered . The king apparently saw one of his most important tasks in listing and renovating all temples.
Apparently the Hittite Empire was now hit by a catastrophic famine. Pharaoh Merenptah (approx. 1212–1203) delivered grain to alleviate the misery. Between 1194 and 1186 BC Ugarit was also destroyed, Cyprus was lost, the ruler of which was the king of Ugarit, Hammurapi III. , had warned of an impending attack. However, the Ugaritian foot troops and the fleet defended the Hittite heartland and the south coast at this time, while Šuppiluliuma II led fighting in the west.
When the Hittite empire disappeared and whether there were uprisings in the capital is not known, the capital shows only minor traces of destruction. Maybe it was relocated again. Kurunta, the viceroy in Tarḫuntašša, now interfered in the battle for the great empire, but an inscription refers to a victory of Šuppiluliuma over Tarḫuntašša. Pirate fleets may have played a role in the fall of the empire, as Šikaläer ( cuneiform : ši-ka-la- (iu) -u = Šikalaju, "people of Šikala") in a letter (RS 34.129) from the Hittite great king to the city prefect published by Ugarit. They “live on ships” as it is called. The Šikaleans are probably related to the Sea Peoples , of whose occurrence Egyptian sources from the time of Merenptah and Ramses III. to report. Some of the research equates the Šikalaeans with the Šekeleš and others with the Tjekers . Where the individual sea peoples came from is very controversial in research. There are opinions, according to which they come partly from Sicily , Sardinia , Etruria , but also men from Adana and Philistines in Mukiš , north of Ugarit and in numerous other places as far as Egypt are associated with them. Mycenaean pottery of the 12th century BC BC, which was discovered in large numbers in some places in Apulia and especially in Cyprus, could refer to Mycenaean refugees. Anatolian elements in Palestine insisted that other peoples in the region were also trying to escape the unrest. The Hittite heartland was probably occupied by Kaškaers after the larger Hittite cities were abandoned or destroyed. The western Anatolian city of Troy, Layer VIIa, was probably destroyed during this period.
The Hittite culture survived until around 700 BC. In several small states in Eastern Anatolia, for example in Melid , today's Malatya , Zincirli , Karkemiš and Tabal .
South and Southeast Anatolia
In southeastern Anatolia it was mainly Tarsus and Mersin that were of great importance for the late Bronze Age. According to the previous sections, the time during the Hittite rule was divided into the Late Bronze Age I (1650–1450 BC) and II (1450–1100), with II again being divided into a Hittite and an Aegean; IIa (1450–1225) was characterized by monumental buildings of the Hittites, IIb (1225–1100) by traces of the sea peoples. Today the Late Bronze Age I is set around 100 years later, II around 40 years. While Tarsus was strongly influenced by the changes in power between Mitanni, Assyria, the Hittites and the Sea Peoples, the southeast, especially on the Tigris, was transformed from an intermediate trade zone between Mesopotamia and Anatolia to a border area between the great powers. As a result, most of the trading settlements were abandoned here, while numerous fortresses were built. At the same time, in contrast to Tarsus, the Hittite influence decreased in favor of the Syrian. At the end of the Bronze Age, the military settlements were abandoned, and large regions appear to have been uninhabited or only briefly inhabited by land occupiers. The region only recovered around 1000 BC. Chr.
Iron age
Our knowledge of the early Iron Age of Central Anatolia, which preceded the large-scale rule of Phrygia in the west and Urartu in the east, is poor due to the lack of appropriate excavations, which is all the more true for the Central Anatolian plateau. The older division into the early Iron Age, often referred to as the Dark Ages or Dark Ages , middle and late, is no longer undisputed. After these centuries, the written tradition began with increasing density, so that the contours of individual political domains are more clearly recognizable.
After the end of the Hittite Empire, the Phrygians established an empire that was established by the 8th century BC at the latest. BC ruled large parts of western and central Anatolia. Under Midas it expanded in the 2nd half of the 8th century BC. BC far to the east, like Assyrian sources especially from the time of Tiglath-Pilesers III. and Sargons II prove. Hittite successor states continued to exist in the southeast and south. Since 850 BC The kingdom of Urartu existed in eastern Anatolia (with its center at Lake Van ) .
Phrygians, Kimmerer, Lydians
At the end of the 8th century, the perhaps Scythian Cimmerians reached Anatolia. Tree ring investigations in Gordion , 100 km southwest of Ankara on the Sakarya , reveal Phrygian traces between 1071 and 740 BC. BC, with evidence of a wetter, cooler climate, which should have been beneficial to agriculture. The early Phrygian city is dated 950 to 800 BC. Dated to the Middle Phrygian between 800 and 540 BC. BC (the late Phrygian city was politically insignificant until 400 BC, but economically highly integrative). A large-scale redesign of the upper town was, as long assumed based on Assyrian and Greek sources, not suddenly ended by the cimmerians through the destruction of Gordion, but rather as early as 800 BC. By a city fire. With the incursion of the Cimmerians into central and western Anatolia at the beginning of the 7th century BC The Phrygian Empire collapsed.
It had evidently been distressed by the Lydians before. The late Iron Age, which only ended with Alexander the Great, in turn brought about extensive trade and a cultural revival. Around 680 BC The Lydians destroyed the Phrygian Empire, but in 644 BC the Lydians destroyed the Phrygian Empire. King Gyges (Guggu) was killed in the battle against the Cimmerians, as a result of which the capital Sardis was taken ( Herodotus I, 15). The Kimmerer also plundered the Ionian cities together with the Treren. It was not until around 600 that the Kimmerer was driven out by the Lydian king Alyattes II (Herodotus I, 16), the father of the famous Croesus (Kroisos). From 590 the Lydians were in conflict with the new great power of the Medes , which again drastically changed the political landscape. They had 614 BC In alliance with Babylon, the Assyrian empire and the city of Assyria were destroyed, two years later the Assyrian capital, Nineveh .
Besides Gordion, there are only a few other Iron Age excavation sites in Central Anatolia, these are Boğazkale (Ḫattuša; formerly Boğazköy, over 200 km east of Ankara), which covered about 180 hectares and was previously the Hittite capital, Çadır Höyük , Kuşaklı and Kaman-Kalehöyük , around 100 km southeast of Ankara. They point to the disappearance of the potter's wheel during the Early Iron Age (with the exception of Kaman), thus probably to the return of predominantly regional production instead of supraregional trade. The zones of cultural similarity, which are particularly recognizable in the ceramics, have become smaller. Boğazkale was also the first evidence that there was any settlement continuity between the late Bronze and early Iron Ages. However, it was initially a small village that apparently recycled Hittite materials from the monumental remains. At the end of the Iron Age, the largest building reached dimensions of 20 × 30 m, but the settlement was closed around 600 BC. Abandoned. About 10 km north of Çadır Höyük, the huge late Iron Age fortress town of Kerkenes was found , which stretched over 250 hectares. It was completely destroyed between the end of the 7th and the middle of the 6th century, the huge 7 km long walls razed.
Urartu
In Eastern Anatolia, the equation of the early Iron Age with the pre-Urartian phase, the middle with the Urartian and the later Iron Age with the Median and Archaemenid phases is slowly gaining ground. The locally available iron ore discoveries greatly reduced the dependence on the long-distance trade in tin and copper, which marked the Bronze Age, but in a slow process. The social changes in the course of the fall of the Hittite Empire, as some fire horizons show, were likely to have been more dramatic. At Lake Van , the archaeological situation is even more unfavorable. As Assyrian sources show, however, there were rulers in the region, such as Uruatri and Nairi, but the naming of 60 kings remains rather unbelievable. In the Erzurum region, however , the early Iron Age can be better understood, for example in Sos Höyük , which lasted until the 2nd century BC. Was inhabited.
"Uruatri" appears for the first time in Central Assyrian texts from the 13th century BC. BC, but this probably only meant the landscape at Lake Van; the local residents called their area "Biai-nili" in their language , but the Assyrian name has established itself in science. Their capital was Tušpa . At times the Urartians reached Karkemiš in the south and Qulha in the northwest, their empire comprised Lake Sevan and the Araxes Valley in the north, Lake Urmia in the east and Rawanduz in the southeast. Campaigns by Urartian rulers took place as far as Georgia . Either Išpuini or his son Menua conquered Hasanlu in Mannai around 810 . Towards the end of the reign of Išpuini, campaigns to the southern and western parts of Lake Urmi took place, which are documented, among other things, by the inscription from Taštepe and the stele from Karagündüz .
Late Hittite States
After the end of the Hittite Empire, some rulers appealed to its great kings. A number of comparatively small states emerged, the northern ones from Hittite, the southern from around 1000 BC. BC rather were led by Aramaic rulers. Multilingualism was widespread. Under the pressure of Assyria, some Hittite successor states such as Sam'al and Kizzuwatna joined the rule of Karkemiš, but city alliances were also formed against the great power. In addition, Kummuh existed around the later Samosata or the Luwian tabal northwest of Malatya , which, like Karkemiš, claimed the succession of the Hittite great kings. Qu'e with the cities of Tarsus, Adana and the fortresses Sirkeli Höyük and Karatepe fell in 725 BC. To the Assyrians, Karkemiš followed 717 BC. A considerable part of Southeast Anatolia was thus subjected to the end of the Assyrian Empire, even if there were repeated uprisings. From 607 BC BC Cilicia became independent under the Syennesis , even if the New Babylonian Empire made claims in the southeast.
Persian expansion
In 550/549 the Persians came into possession of the Medes capital Ekbatana and as early as 547 the Persian king Kūruš ( Cyrus II ) advanced to southeastern Anatolia and conquered Urartu. Then he defeated the Lydian king Kroisos and probably annexed his capital Sardis in 541 and his empire, which reached as far as the Greek cities on the Aegean coast. Sardis became the capital of a Persian satrapy , and Babylon also fell in 539.
The Greek settlements on the west coast, among which Miletus held a prominent position , also belonged to the Lydians' domain . These Ionian cities had enjoyed a privileged position and a cultural rapprochement had come about. According to Herodotus , Kroisos had consulted the oracle of Delphi in the run-up to his campaign against the Persians . When the Lydian Empire was conquered by the Persians, many cities such as Ephesus and Priene , with the exception of Milets , opposed the conquerors, albeit ultimately without success, even if they were joined by Carians , Kaunians and Cypriots, as did the city of Byzantion . 498 BC BC was defeated by the Greek army against the Persian army at Ephesus. Two of the three sons-in-law of the Persian king were killed, but the third, Otanes , and the satrap of Sardis, Artaphernes , successfully attacked the Greeks. Until 333 BC BC ( Battle of Issus ) the Persians ruled over Asia Minor until Alexander the Great defeated them and established an empire as far as India .
An alliance offer by Athens in 507 BC Was viewed by the Persians as submission to the city-state. 499 BC A revolt broke out in the Greek areas of Asia Minor against Persian rule, which was supported by Athens and Eretria . The insurgents took 498 BC. BC Sardis a. The uprising, which spread to Cyprus and Thrace , ended in 494 BC. Defeated, Miletus destroyed. 492 BC BC Thrace was again subjected, in 490 Eretria, allied with Athens, was destroyed; a Persian army finally landed in Attica with the intention of conquering Athens, but failed in the battle of Marathon . Further attempts failed in the battles of Salamis and Plataiai (480 and 479 BC).
Athens now took on the leading role in the fight against the Persians ( Persian Wars ), the Greek cities of Asia Minor became independent. It wasn't until 449 BC. A peace was made between the Persian king and Athens. In the Corinthian War (399 to 386 BC) the Persian Empire entered on the side of Athens and Thebes ; this anti- Sparta coalition was victorious. In the King's Peace it was stipulated that the Greek cities of Asia Minor should again be subject to the Persian Empire and that all other Greek cities should be independent. Despite this success, Persian rule was further shaken. In the 360s, several uprisings broke out in Asia Minor, which were formerly known as the "Great Satrap Uprising". However, they were mutually independent uprisings. Local rulers like the Karier Maussollos gained considerable power. The last time King Artaxerxes III succeeded. for a few years the restoration of Persian power, which finally began in 334 BC. Was smashed by Alexander the Great.
Alexander, Hellenistic Empires, Rome, Armenia
Already after his first victory over the Persians, Alexander the Great showed that he wanted to take over the existing system of satrapies by entrusting the Macedonian Kalas with the recently conquered satrapy Daskyleion . When Sardis came into Alexander's hands, the city was allowed to live according to the previous customs and Alexander gave it a free hand in domestic politics. He was able to overcome the initial resistance of Greek cities such as Miletus ; he then moved to Gordion and finally to Cilicia . 333 BC Alexander triumphed at Issus and began to conquer the rest of the Persian Empire. Considerable parts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia and the north, were untouched by his rule.
After the death of Alexander in 323 BC His Greek secretary Eumenes received the still to be conquered Cappadocia , which the Persian satrap Ariarathes I defended against the Macedonians until 322. His adoptive son Ariarathes II fled to Armenia , but was able to recapture Cappadocia decades later. He was followed by his son Ariaramna , who had to recognize the supremacy of the Seleucids, who received the east of the Alexander Empire. Ariaramna's son and successor of Ariarathes III. married Stratonike, the daughter of the Seleucid king, and called herself from around 250 BC. BC King (basileus) .
Even before Alexander's death, his Macedonian officers had begun to position themselves for the struggle for power. According to the Babylonian imperial order after the death of Alexander, Anatolia was also divided. Armenia went to Neoptolemus , Cilicia to Philotas , Lydia went to Menandros , Caria to Asandros , Little Phrygia - the "Hellespontic Phrygia" - to Leonnatos , Greater Phrygia, on the other hand, together with Lycia , Pamphylia and Pisidia , went to Antigonus "the one-eyed". This was 321 BC. He was appointed military leader in Asia and charged with eliminating Eumenes, who, together with Perdiccas, defended the rights of the royal family against the officers' claims to power. After the death of Perdiccas (320 BC) and the murder of most of the members of the royal family until 316 BC. The Diadochi fought openly. 311 BC They agreed on a peace that effectively divided the empire of Alexander, around 310 Alexander's son and his mother were murdered. 301 BC BC Antigonus was the last to claim the entire empire, defeated. His elevation to king paved the way for the other diadochi to formally found a total of six dynasties. The freedom of the Greek cities was threatened again, the new overlords were shown divine veneration. After Ipsos , Asia Minor fell to Lysimachus , who resided in Thrace and founded Alexandria Troas in Asia Minor. He deposited his state treasure in Pergamon. He had his son murdered, believing that he was intriguing against him; his Ptolemaic wife fled to Seleucus .
The battle of Kurupedion was victorious in 281 BC. Chr. Seleucus I and brought Asia Minor in itself, so that it was shortly become the most powerful Diadochen which Alexander's empire dominated, apart from Egypt. However, after he had crossed the Hellespont to enforce his rule in Macedonia , he was murdered. Alexander's last officer died and the next generation of Epigones divided the empire. In Asia Minor, the smaller Hellenistic kingdoms of Pergamon , Bithynia , Pontus and Cappadocia fought for their autonomy, while the Ptolemies , who had their center of power in Egypt, were able to establish themselves in most of the coastal areas, initially in Phaselis and Xanthos . In addition, Egypt was able to dominate the Aegean Nesiote League and gain influence in Cilicia.
As we learn from Hellenistic sources , the Celtic Galatia was added as a new factor of unrest in the fragmented Asia Minor . Celts, who had recently settled near Byzantion, were conquered by the Bithynian ruler Nicomedes I in 278 BC. BC called to help against his brother. After the victory, the three tribes of the Tolistobogier , Trokmer and Tektosag advanced further into the interior of Asia Minor, where they settled down and founded the Kingdom of Galatia, defeated by Antiochus I in the battle of the elephants (268 BC). The Tolistobogier lived in the west around Pessinus and Gordion, the Tectos sagas around Ankyra (Ankara) and the Trokmer on the right bank of the Halys. They continued to work as mercenaries with the Seleucids and Ptolemies. The blackmail of the western coastal cities led to the introduction of the so-called "Galatian Tax", with which Antiochus II paid the tribute "and thus also earned money from their blackmail". Around 230 BC Attalus I of Pergamum succeeded in defeating the Galatians twice and between 184 and 165 BC. Eumenes II gained supremacy over them; this succeeded after 189 BC. The Roman consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso had several of their fortresses stormed and sold numerous Celts into slavery.
Rome had 190 BC The war against the Seleucids Antiochus III. be able to finish victoriously. 188 BC The division of the Seleucid Empire was completed by the Peace of Apamea . The main winner was Eumenes II, whose territory quadrupled. Cities that Antiochus III. Tribute paid, but had supported Rome in the war, remained free of tribute demands, but all cities that had paid tribute to the Pergamener Attalus, now paid the same amount to Eumenes. After all, the cities that defected to Antiochus and paid tribute to him had to pay these sums to Eumenes. Old allies remained without any obligation to pay tribute. Pergamon now comprised Lycaonia , the two Phrygia , Mysia , Lydia and Ionia . But this new great power was a mixture of different peoples, institutions and forms of life. 133 BC The last king Attalus III. his empire in Rome, even if Aristonikos , an illegitimate son of Attalus II , offered resistance for another four years.
Until 60 BC The coastal regions came to the Roman Empire through Pompey , even if King Mithridates VI. Eupator von Pontus (121-63 BC) had tried in three wars to induce Asia Minor to revolt against the Romans. Gradually Rome subjugated all of Asia Minor and around 65 the provinces were redistributed. This is how Bithynia et Pontus emerged in the north, Asia in the west, Lycia et Pamphylia in the southwest and Cilicia in the southeast. The kings of Galatia, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia became vassals of Rome until they too were integrated into the empire as provinces. Paphlagonia became 64 BC. United to the province of Bithynia et Pontus . The Ariobarzanids of Cappadocia were allied with Rome in many ways and ruled from 95 to 36 BC. First Emperor Tiberius put an end to the independent kingdom in 18 AD and made it the imperial province of Cappadocia .
However, the Roman expansion reached its limits in the east. This was due to the fact that Rome was keen to oppose the Parthians , who lived between about 250 BC. and 224 AD led a great power in Iran to obtain a buffer state. The time of the immigration of the Armenians living there is unclear. 188 BC Artaxias I proclaimed himself king of Armenia . The Artaxid dynasty initially managed to expand its empire considerably. The Armenian kingdom gained in the 1st century BC Its greatest extent under King Tigranes the Great . He was proclaimed King of Kings, but came into conflict with Rome. The Artaxids were replaced by the Parthians, who fought frequently with Rome, in Armenia from 12 and 54 AD by the Arsacids , a branch of the Parthian royal family. Armenia continued to be seen as a buffer state between the great powers, in which the Parthians and Romans tried to exert influence and to enforce their pretenders. Temporarily made a province by Rome under Trajan , Armenia was able to maintain a certain independence between the powers, although the Sassanids , who replaced the Parthians in 224, initially exerted considerably more pressure. 301 took King Trdat III. and the members of the court to Christianity, as taught by Gregory the Illuminator .
Provinces in the Roman Empire
Asia , the westernmost province in Roman Anatolia, was the provinces in Asia Minor with the largest number of cities. In addition to Ephesus, the seat of the proconsul, Pergamon and Smyrna were the largest cities, but Miletus , Sardis , Tralleis , and Mylasa were also important centers of administration and trade. Most of the Greeks lived there , while a pre-Greek population continued to exist in the rural areas. The cities were Christianized as early as the second half of the 1st century.
Diocletian , who resided as one of the tetrarchs in Nicomedeia in Bithynia, had the empire reorganized. The top administrative level became the dioceses , below that were the provinces. He had the Dioecesis Asiana divided accordingly into smaller provinces: In addition to Asia, which only comprised the central west coast, these were Hellespontus , Lydia and Phrygia in the north, Pisidia and Lycaonia in the east and Caria , Pamphylia and Lycia in the south. There were also insulae , which included most of the Aegean islands. The other provinces were also divided. Under Constantine, the empire was again divided into prefectures that were settled above the diocesan level. The dioceses of Oriens (Egypt, Levant to Cilicia and Isauria), Pontica (northern and eastern Anatolia) and Asiana (southern and western Anatolia) were subordinate to the Praefectus praetorio per Orientem responsible for Asia Minor. In 395 Egypt was separated and the number of prefectures increased to five.
While the East, particularly Armenia, remained a constant bone of contention between the Romans on the one hand and the Parthians and Persians on the other, the provinces of Asia Minor developed an enormous economic and cultural activity that was only disturbed by a few military conflicts. These included the uprising of Septimia Zenobia from 267/68 to 272, which covered a large part of the Roman Orient and advanced to Cilicia. The advance into western Asia Minor failed, however.
Karl Julius Beloch estimated the population of Asia to be 6 million on an area of 135,000 km², in total for Anatolia he came to 11.5 to 13.5 million inhabitants, a number that the region did not show again until well after 1900. However, these numbers are to be used as approximate values at best. As is often the case in the Mediterranean region, the Asia Minor economy was based on wine, olive oil and wheat in the appropriate areas. Lydia and Phrygia were considered to be pronounced grain regions, but they never represented granaries such as Egypt, Africa or Sicily. These products, which were also important for export, were accompanied by goods from horticulture, such as fruit and vegetables, but also spices. There was also fishing and traditional livestock farming. In the mountain areas, wood, pitch and resins were added, as well as honey and mushrooms from the forests there. The forest products, especially wood and pitch, were of great importance for shipbuilding; so the area east of Amastris supplied boxwood.
The wars, which were often fought on the soil of Asia Minor, led to hunger crises and the impoverishment of entire regions. But even in the Antonine era, hunger was particularly severe, a catastrophe reported by the doctor Galen. Nonetheless, trade flourished, not only in the urban centers with their luxury needs, as had long been assumed, but also in rural areas, which were more difficult to reach for goods. Many large merchants, often of Italian origin, were active in the port cities; there were large trading companies whose activity could be insured. They chartered cargo hold or entire ships. The Bithynians were considered a seafaring nation; Shipowners, seafarers and financiers sat especially in Nicomedeia. They mainly traded in marble. Similar to the traders from Sinop , they had liaison officers in Greek cities and in Rome. Miletus, on the other hand, was the most important supplier of fine wool and textiles. Furthermore, metal goods and minerals, leather and parchment, ceramics, but also slaves played an important role.
Although the level of market brokerage was overall considerably lower than it is today, the amount of coins found shows that the handling of money was much more widespread than in most parts of the rest of the empire. In Phrygia alone, coins were occasionally minted by 52 cities between the 1st and 3rd centuries. Not every polis minted its own coins; on the other hand, even small villages in the Tauros did so. The coins of pre-Roman dynasties also continued to circulate. During the imperial crisis, the value of the coins declined, whereas a coin reform was already attempted under Aurelian. Diocletian ordered that only a single imperial coin was allowed to circulate, but Asia Minor could not return to the prosperity of the pre-crisis period.
In late antiquity, Asia Minor still had over 600 cities. Asia already had 282 cities in the early imperial era, even Pisidia had 54 cities. Some of them went back to Roman colonies that were colonized by Italians. These places enjoyed privileges, which, however, became increasingly difficult to enforce during the imperial era. The city leagues, such as the Ionian league, or sacred leagues around a sanctuary, also existed well into the imperial era. More important, however, were the state parliaments, which were referred to as Koinon with the addition of the province name. Their leaders took on titles such as an "Asiarch" or a "Bithyniarch", in Lycia women also appeared a few times as "Lykiarchissa". An archpriest was in charge. Above all, the Koina ensured communication with the emperor, for example to draw up petitions complaining about attacks by governors, or to appoint emissaries.
In the cities, the decisive body was the city council, the boules . The councilors were a small, privileged class. One had to be a citizen of the polis without Roman citizenship being required, but above all one had to show a minimum amount of wealth, which in antiquity primarily required land ownership. Legal advisers and lawyers, community doctors and a kind of police force were available to them. In the 2nd century there were "peace officers" as a kind of police chief; In the rural areas there were "field guards" who mainly fought against robbery. However, the cities did not maintain any military apparatus, because the military was controlled centrally from Rome.
There were no direct taxes, so the cities financed themselves through taxes and duties, sales taxes and numerous fees, but also fines. However, some rural areas were charged with a flat-rate tax. Some urban areas were larger than 10,000 km². In order to be able to distribute the burdens, the Roman legislation aimed at the inclusion of larger groups of residents. The Greeks, on the other hand, insisted on the exclusivity of their rights and excluded the part of the population who spoke poorly Greek. In addition to rights, the distribution of bread grain depended on membership of the citizenry. With the reforms of the 3rd century, the municipalities also lost fiscal freedom, and dignitaries were made liable for the taxes. In the middle of the 3rd century, the cities stopped minting their own coins.
Women were entitled to inheritance and acted as testators, owners of land and slaves. Some can be found among the winners in horse racing. However, they did not sit on the city council, but were only allowed to attribute themselves to it titularly. Jewish women also held the title of head of the synagogue, for example in Smyrna. In this widely divided society, the Jewish communities played a special role. They were strongly present in the imperial cities and on their holidays cities like Smyrna presented a different picture.
Christianization, division of the empire, colonization
In 395 Asia Minor fell to Eastern Europe through the division of the Roman Empire. Since 380 n. Chr. Theodosius I the Christianity to the state religion had raised, was Konstantin Opel center of the Eastern Church and seat of the Patriarch. Christianization began with Paul of Tarsus , who campaigned for the newly emerging religion in Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe and Ephesus. As a result, numerous communities emerged in the urban and rural areas of Phrygia, Lydia, Lycaonia and northern Isauria. The oldest epigraphic evidence comes from the 2nd half of the 2nd century from the Phrygian communities of Cadi, Synaos and Aizanoi . Montanist communities also emerged , especially in Phrygia, whose doctrine was regarded as heresy , as well as that of the followers of Novatian , which can be found predominantly in the 4th century in Pisidia, Lycaonia, Lydia and Bithynia. Even more rigorous were the Enkratites , Sakkophoroi and the Apotaktiten , who were probably able to tie in with the moral rigor that characterized the religiosity of Asia Minor more than other parts of the empire. These groups resisted the secularization of the church, but they had no common political, ethnic or social roots. At the end of the 3rd century, Christians made up the majority of the population in some communities, the oldest episcopal inscriptions were made around 300, and at the end of the 4th century non-Christians were apparently already in the minority.
With the end of the persecutions since Constantine I (313) and the increasing privileges by the state, including tax exemption, a steeper church hierarchy emerged. The bishops in the respective metropolis of the provinces became archbishops from 325, to whom the other bishops of the province owed obedience. From 381 the Patriarch of Constantinople presided over all bishops in the dioceses of Asiana and Pontica. On the other hand, the Patriarch of Antioch on the Orontes was subordinate to the dioceses of Asia Minor of Cilicia and Isauria. Below the Bishop plane found deacons and deaconesses , elders and lecturers , were added gravedigger, doorkeeper , Protopresbyter and subdeacons . Around 300 the village bishops received the title of choir bishop . Soon they were only considered to be the successors of the (at least) 70 disciples , no longer the 12 apostles like the bishops. In the middle of the 4th century a presbyter should be enough in the villages, but choir bishops can still be found in the 6th century. The clergy was the only class to which all social classes had access, even if not everyone could rise to the highest positions in the most important church centers and the higher classes probably did not strive for a diocese in less respected areas. The Clergy on the estates of the landlords put residents who are tenant farmers .
This refers to the transition phase in the development from free farmer to colonate. Imperial laws created the prerequisites, presumably on the initiative of the large landowners, to cede almost unlimited power of disposition and police power to local masters, whose growing economic units are increasingly isolated from state influence. The rural population was initially forced to cultivate the land and taxes (tributum) to be paid. Until the 5th century, the people who worked the land were often tied to their land while their property belonged to their master, but after three decades in this legal status others could take their mobile property or their property into their own possession. Under Emperor Justinian I , a distinction was no longer made between free and unfree colonies. Colons and unfree were now used identically to describe farmers who were tied to the clod and had no free property.
Since Constantine the Great, gentlemen have been allowed to chain fugitive colonies that had disappeared less than thirty years ago. Since 365 it was forbidden for the colonists to dispose of their actual possessions, probably primarily tools. Since 371 the gentlemen were allowed to collect the taxes from the colonies themselves. Finally, in 396, the farmers lost the right to sue their masters.
Persian wars, Arab expansion, stabilization as a Byzantine heartland
For a long time Byzantium had to defend itself against attacks by Persian, Hunnic and Gothic, then Arab, Bulgarian and Avar armies. At the same time, the state was torn by internal church disputes over theological questions and was shaken by revolts, such as 491–498 in Isauria . The military campaigns mainly hit the Byzantine areas in the Balkans, while Anatolia was initially affected by the wars with the Persians and Umayyads . These numerous battles, which replaced each other almost continuously until 740, militarized Anatolia and depopulated the areas in the border area between the great powers, i.e. especially in Eastern Anatolia. The labor shortage in the country led to a further decline in the already declining agricultural production, by far the most important sector of the medieval economy. The cities shrank, their function changed. Their main tasks were security, fiscal revenue and local and regional exchanges. Communication broke down again and again and remained difficult, the circulation of money decreased. From the 660s onwards, confidence in the value of the coins was so low that the bronze coins disappeared. Until 769, when payment in coins was again required, the tax authorities were forced to refrain from collecting money on goods and services. The army was reorganized in such a way that it got by with little money, for example by setting up compensation in the form of goods. Only Ephesus was able to expand its economic position.
The Roman-Persian battles of the 7th century were characterized by the will to defeat the enemy completely, no longer just to gain territories. After the war in the time of Chosrau I (531-579) had been waged with great intensity, the Persians under Chosrau II (590-628) between 603 and 627 began to systematically occupy Eastern Roman territory. After several wars in the course of which the Persians briefly occupied Edessa in 544 , Eastern Byzantium and Persia in 562 concluded an "eternal peace". But in the 570s and 580s there was again fierce fighting in the upper Tigris region. In 575 the Byzantines occupied Lazika on the eastern edge of the Black Sea, which in turn was briefly held by the Persians in 588. As a result, the Byzantines extended their territory almost to the Caspian Sea , but without being able to hold these regions in the long term. In 591 a new peace agreement was reached.
At the same time, the Avars opened a second front on the Danube when they captured Sirmium in 582 . In addition, large Slavic associations moved to Greece. From 604 the Persians began to conquer Anatolia. In 611 Edessa and Apamea fell , then Antioch on the Orontes . In 615/616 an army advanced as far as the Bosporus . At the same time, Persian armies advanced 616 into Egypt, 619 they were in Tripoli, Libya . In 617 the Persian fleet captured Cyprus and attacked Rhodes soon after . At the same time, the Avars and Slavs conquered cities in the Balkans and stood before Constantinople in 616. In 626 the Persians, Slavs and Avars besieged the capital. However, Constantinople could not be conquered in 626 and Emperor Herakleios had started a counter-offensive that led him into the Persian heartland from 623 onwards. He did not allow himself to be distracted by the siege of Constantinople in 626 and defeated the Persians in December 627; Chosrau II was overthrown in early 628 and the Persians had to ask for peace.
A few years after this all-out war, which had brought both great powers to the brink of collapse, the expansion of Islam, initially supported by Arabs, began . After the conquest of Egypt and Syria between around 633 and 642, Asia Minor formed the core of the Eastern Roman Empire. In 639/40 the Arabs stood on the upper Tigris, in 641 an army advanced as far as Amorion , again in 647; Caesarea was sacked in 646. A naval battle broke out off the Lycian port city of Phoinix in 655 , in which the fleet commanded by the emperor suffered a heavy defeat. Nevertheless, the Arab conquest slowed down, because from 656 there was a civil war lasting several years and the division of Islam into Sunnis and Shiites .
But after that, Damascus , the seat of the caliphate, resumed its offensive. In 662 the region around Tephrike was lost. In 668 an army moved as far as the Bosporus, from 674 to 678 Constantinople was besieged again after Smyrna had been conquered in 672. But the siege failed. In 709–711, Muslim armies conquered the Cappadocian Tyana . Justinian II had several of the conquered settle in the Asian Minor theme of Opsikion in 688 after a victory over the Bulgarians and Slavs . From 717 to 718 the Arabs tried again to conquer the capital, but this time too the Byzantines held out. Although Muslim armies plundered again and again in east Asia Minor, from 726 onwards the Arabs no longer succeeded in winning. In 732 Muʿāwiya I reached Paphlagonia, but from 740, after a devastating defeat at Akroinon, the situation in Anatolia calmed down.
The iconoclastic controversy began in 726 , but Constantine V seems to have pursued a policy that was rather moderately hostile to images. After an image-friendly phase from around 797 onwards, the conflict intensified again from 815 onwards, but was ended in 843. Despite these internal disputes, several victories over the Arabs were achieved in Asia Minor (798 at Dorylaion, 806 at Angora), and naval expeditions led, albeit unsuccessfully, to Crete and even Egypt. A peace agreement was reached in 781, for which Byzantium paid tribute, but which it discontinued in 802. Byzantium had overcome the phase of mere defensive battles.
In order to organize the military defense and to set up the appropriate settlement of former soldiers, topics or army districts such as Anatolikon emerged as early as the middle of the 7th century . This topic owes its name to the fact that the defeated army of the Magister militum per Orientem ( Latin Oriens = Greek Anatolé ) had withdrawn here. The administrative seat of this topic was Amorion 200 km southwest of Ankara. In the course of time this name was carried over to the whole of Asia Minor. The state, which appropriated part of the agricultural and trade income in various ways, distributed it in the form of money in the form of wages, thus taking on an important role in the re-expansion of the money economy in rural areas and thus more market-mediated processes. In 769, the government was able to require that taxes be paid in cash. This presupposed sufficient monetization, probably a sign of a noticeable economic recovery. The simplification of copper coin production in the 8th and 9th centuries required the coin system to become more flexible. This happened under conditions that were far removed from administrative control over economic processes. Only in the area of basic foodstuffs, especially grain, but also in luxury products such as silk, a connection between state action and sole proprietorships arose. The rather rural economy was in the hands of mostly small owners, while the bartering was in the hands of traders, skippers and seafarers. At the same time, the importance of the large estates declined compared to the villages. Cities, ports and ships also became smaller. The volume of trade was still relatively small, but a turnaround is on the horizon.
Often Slavic settlers were deported from the Balkans to Asia Minor and settled there in order to compensate for the population losses and to calm the Balkans. But religious and social tensions continued to rise. In 820 insurgents rose up under the leadership of Thomas the Slav , who allied with the Abbasids and held out until 823. He was seen as the protector of the poor and relied on the Paulikians, who were strong in the east . He settled under the name of Constantine VI. crowned emperor, enthroned two co-emperors and from the end of 821 besieged Constantinople unsuccessfully, which was also supported by the Bulgarians, who had created a new, Orthodox empire. In 823 he was executed, his followers were defeated in 824. The Abbasids used this extremely violent civil war to conquer Crete, which remained Muslim until 961. In 838 Arab troops moved to Amorion and sacked the city .
In 853 and 859 the Byzantine fleet attacked Egypt, 865 Crete. Although several cities on the Euphrates such as Samosata were successfully conquered in 873, Byzantium did not go on the offensive until around 940. Conquests to the east and the Balkans made it possible in the course of the Macedonian Renaissance to secure power in Asia Minor. In 943 Byzantine troops reached Amida and Nisibis , in 959 Samosata again, in 963 and 965 the conquest of Adana and Tarsos, 965 of Cyprus and 969 of Antioch. In 975 Damascus became a Byzantine vassal and the southeast border of the Byzantine sphere of influence ended shortly before Jerusalem . A few years later some of these areas had to be given up again, but the border consolidated for several decades. Under Emperor Basil II the reconquest of the Balkans and the conquest of the area between Lake Van and Lake Urmia (1021-1022) were also successful. Finally, in the extreme east, Kars (1052) and Ani (1065) were added.
The Byzantine economy recovered much earlier than the Western European one in the 8th and 9th centuries. The slowly growing population was an important driver. The areas that were plowed expanded again, and possibly the yields per unit area increased as well. In any case, production followed the growing demand, as indicated by the absence of periods of inflation and starvation by the middle of the 10th century at the latest. After the grain prices had risen from the 6th to the 9th centuries, they now fell again. The cities began to grow again as early as the end of the 8th century - a development that accelerated further until the end of the 12th century.
Byzantium and the Seljuks, Lesser Armenia
The Seljuks , who conquered Anatolia in the second half of the 11th century, were an Islamized Turkish dynasty from Transoxania in what is now Uzbekistan , who had previously conquered Afghanistan and parts of Persia . Already before 1050, Seljuk groups infiltrated the east of Asia Minor, while from 1047 onwards there were various revolts and throne surpations in the Byzantine Empire. In 1057 Isaak Komnenus was proclaimed emperor in Paphlagonia , who was crowned in Constantinople just under three months later on September 1st. Meanwhile, larger and larger associations of Seljuk groups appeared in Anatolia. The Khan of the Great Seljuks Alp Arslan had cities like Ani and Kars conquered in 1063, Edessa was besieged in 1065. The entire east was lost by 1068. On August 19, 1071, an army led by Emperor Romanos IV was defeated in the Battle of Manzikert north of Lake Van. The emperor fell into captivity, but Alp-Arslan released him. When he returned to Constantinople, however, he was overthrown; Alp-Arslan died in 1072. Only his son and successor Malik Shah I (1072-1092) finally conquered large parts of Eastern Anatolia. So in 1087 he snatched Edessa from the Byzantine governor Philaretos Brachamios .
In Anatolia around Konya 1081 an independent Seljuk rule under Suleiman ibn Kutalmiş , the Seljuk Empire of Rum. This addition "Rum", hence the name Rum Seljuks, means "Rome". The Seljuks referred to themselves as Romans or their descendants and thus distinguished themselves from the Greater Seljuks. They penetrated as far as the Mediterranean. Nicea fell in 1075, Antioch in 1084. In 1077 Suleiman took the title of Sultan, in 1078 he made Nikaia his capital. But 1086-1092 the empire got into a crisis after a defeat by the Great Seljuks. At the same time, Byzantium was able to go on the offensive again from 1082 and then with the beginning of the Crusades .
Emperor Alexios I managed to smuggle the crusader army through his empire to Asia Minor, whose leaders had to swear to return the former Byzantine territories to the empire. Byzantine troops regained Asia Minor up to a line from Trapezunt - Ankara - Meander until the emperor's death. After 1104 several Cilician and Syrian fortresses were added. After the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders (1099), however, their cooperation with Byzantium ended, and the counties of Edessa and Tripoli also did not recognize Byzantine suzerainty. The renewed relocation of the focus to Asia Minor was, on the one hand, only possible at the cost of numerous trade privileges, especially for the Venetians , and on the other hand, through the alliance with the landed nobility, instead of with the capital city officials. Thus, in the long term, trade and thus state revenue became dependent on Italian trade interests, and on the other hand, a feudalization of rural conditions set in, which until then had been alien to the centralized Byzantine state controlled by officials. In addition, in 1101 Suleiman's son Kılıç Arslan I triumphed over again pushing crusaders , conquered Iconium (Konya) and made it the center of his empire.
Emperor John II . First the reconquest of Paphlagonia succeeded, then in 1137 the kingdom of Lesser Armenia followed . In 1144, however, Turkish troops succeeded in conquering Edessa, which triggered the Second Crusade . This ended in disaster in 1147. In addition, Emperor Manuel I shifted his politics strongly to the west and the Sultanate of Konya was soon back in one hand. In addition, under Thoros II , Little Armenia became increasingly independent again from 1145, despite severe setbacks.
Sultan Kılıç Arslan II ("lion sword") was defeated in 1161 by Manuel's nephew Johannes Kontostephanos , whereupon a peace was made with Byzantium. However, this peace ended in 1175 when Kılıç Arslan refused to cede territory conquered by the Danischmenden to Byzantium. On September 17, 1176, he defeated Emperor Manuel in the Battle of Myriokephalon . Thereafter, Byzantine rule in the interior could not be maintained, the Greek population increasingly fled to the urban centers on the coast, in the 13th century new Turkish groups, including the later Ottomans, infiltrated Anatolia. In 1180 he took advantage of the death of Manuel and occupied most of the southeastern coast of Anatolia. In 1185 he made peace with Manuel's successor, Emperor Isaac II.
In 1186 he transferred power to his eleven sons, who, however, fought one another. He could not stop Friedrich Barbarossa either and was defeated in May 1190 in the battles of Philomelion and Iconium . His successor Kai Chosrau I , son of a Byzantine woman who ruled for only four years, conquered the port city of Antalya , but first had to give way to his older brother Suleiman II in 1196 , to whom his underage son Kılıç Arslan III. followed. Kai Chosrau I deposed his nephew and became sultan for the second time in 1205. He died in 1211 after a battle with the ruler of Nicäa Theodor I. In 1230, he succeeded in repelling the westward expanding Khorezm Shahs under their last ruler Jalal ad-Din in the battle of Yassı Çemen near Erzincan .
But Konya was unable to repel the Mongols, who moved to Anatolia a few years later. Between 1236 and 1237 they went on raids, with the support of the Georgians. They advanced as far as Sivas and Malatya and drove whole peoples before them on their marches. So many Turkmen tribes came to Anatolia. Conflict broke out and eventually the Babai Rebellion , which was put down in 1240. The Mongols conquered Erzurum in 1242, then Kai Chosrau II was defeated in 1243 with his Christian allies in the Battle of the Köse Dağ . Konya came under the rule of the Ilkhan in 1277 and the sultanate dissolved in 1303 with the execution of the last sultan.
The Turkish tribes used this decline to make themselves independent from Konya, which is why the political situation in western Anatolia became extremely complicated. Among the so-called Beyliks , which arose between the Aegean Sea and Eastern Anatolia and are often referred to as Emirates, the dynasty founded by Osman Bey , the later Ottoman Empire, finally prevailed . With the Ghazi ideology, which played an important role on the border with the Byzantine Empire (Uc) , the Ottomans looked to the conquest of Byzantine territories, and initially less so to dominate other Turkish groups. Other emirates, like Aydın on the Aegean Sea, tended to focus on trade and piracy, while Germiyan became the dominant power in western Anatolia. The economy of the tribes was based on changing pastures and trade with the neighboring urban areas, but many Turks also served the warring neighboring states in the west and east. The Ottomans achieved their first victory over Byzantine troops from 1298 and 1301. The progenitor of the dynasty is only passed down from Georgios Pachymeres in the form "Ataman" . Mosques were soon built in the conquered cities, some of which still give an impression of early Ottoman architecture. They can be found in Western Anatolia in Iznik (Haci Özbek Camii from 1333) and in Bursa (Orhan Camii from 1340 and Alaattin Camii from 1335).
The Byzantine Empire, which increasingly lost ground in both the Balkans and Anatolia towards the end of the 12th century, fell apart as a result of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The Nikaia Empire was able to expand its position in Asia Minor, initially at the expense of the Latin Empire, which the conquerors had founded, and at the same time stabilize the border against the Turkish territories, as did the Trapezunt Empire on the Black Sea. However, Sinop lost it in 1214. The recovery of Constantinople (1261) and dynastic battles as well as the decline of the economy by the Italian rivals Venice and Genoa led to the loss of large parts of the former Nikai territory to the Turkish Emirates, which had emerged from the collapse of the Seljuk Empire. Only Philadelphia was able to hold out until 1390, and the Byzantine Empire remained independent from Trebizond in Pontus until 1461.
With the invasion of the Seljuks, Armenia lost its statehood, and a migration towards the southwest began, which had already begun with forced resettlement in the 10th century. From the 11th to the 14th century, another Armenian kingdom was founded in Cilicia (between the Taurus Mountains and the southern Mediterranean coast), the kingdom of Lesser Armenia , which existed until 1375 . Turkish nomads settled in the cleared areas. In Antioch the Armenian Vasak ruled until 1080, in Edessa Abu Kab. The founder of the new kingdom, however, was Ruben , who founded the dynasty of the Rubenids named after him, who established the kings from 1199 to 1242. He succeeded from 1079 in alliance with Philaretos Brachamios, who ruled Antioch and Edessa, to expand his territory into the Cilician plain. In 1130 an attack by the Danischmenden was repulsed with the help of the Crusaders, but in 1137–1138 the Byzantine Emperor John II succeeded in recapturing Cilicia. Under Thoros II , the Rubenids were largely independent again, and in 1198 they founded the kingdom. They paid homage to the Roman-German Emperor Heinrich VI. and the archbishop of Mainz crowned Leo II. By Hethum I ended the dynasty of rubenids. He allied himself with the Mongols against the Mamluks and took part in the sacking of Aleppo and Damascus, whereupon the Mamluks attacked Lesser Armenia. At the end of the 13th century they threatened the existence of the kingdom. The Catholic Guido von Lusignan ascended the throne as Constantine IV , but was murdered in 1344. Peter I of Cyprus managed to occupy some coastal cities, but in the end the Mamluks conquered the remnants of the kingdom in 1375. Until then, Lajazzo in particular had played an extremely important role for the Italian long-distance trade metropolises Venice and Genoa. This was facilitated by the fact that direct trade with the Egyptians came to an almost complete standstill from 1322 to 1345 as a result of a papal ban. So for a while there was only Lesser Armenia as a bridge to Persia and Central Asia, and indirectly to Egypt.
Turkish regional rule, Ottoman Empire, Kurds
After the Ottomans conquered Philadelphia and the Emirates of Aydın and Menteşe on the Aegean coast in 1390 and completed large-scale conquests in the Balkans, it seemed only a matter of time before they would also conquer Constantinople.
On July 20, 1402, however, Timur defeated the Ottoman Bayezid I in the battle of Ankara . The Sultan's Tatar troops defected to Timur. After almost twenty hours of fighting, the Serbian troops under Stefan Lazarević also gave up and fled. Bayezid was captured and died in captivity. But in 1403 Timur's troops withdrew from Anatolia, their leader died in 1405. Despite the catastrophic defeat, the sons of Bayezid succeeded in asserting themselves as the only possible candidate for his successor, but they fought for power for a decade. Suleyman (Rumelia), Mehmed (Central Anatolia) and İsa (Anatolia around Bursa ) fought both for the territories lost to Timur and against each other for power. In these battles Süleyman was defeated by another brother, Musa, in 1410, who in turn was defeated by Mehmed in 1413 ( Ottoman Interregnum ).
Mehmed I (1413–1421) and Murad II (1421–1451) continued the expansion of the empire, with the Turkish emirates of Anatolia defending themselves for a particularly long time. Nevertheless, Germiyan , which was tied to the Ottomans around 1375 and which had been one of the most powerful emirates before Timur, came under Ottoman control in 1429. Karaman and Tekke (1386 or 1388), which were subjugated in 1386, were also reoccupied, with Karaman submitting to the Egyptian Mamluks in 1417. Until 1420 the reconquest of the Anatolian territories, z. Partly also through marriage alliances. At this time, however, the expansion was mainly directed towards the west, where in 1448 a decisive victory over a crusader army and in 1453 the conquest of Constantinople under the leadership of Mehmed II succeeded, which became the new capital and thus replaced Adrianople (Edirne), which this function inherited from Bursa from 1369. The sultan called himself Kayser-i Rûm ("Roman Emperor"), with which he followed in Seljuk footsteps, but also in Byzantine-Roman footsteps.
With the expansion to the east, the Ottoman Empire came into first conflicts with the Persians and the Mamluks, which was also evident in internal dynastic battles. Cem Sultan , the younger brother of Sultan Bayezid II , resisted the exclusion from the rule and occupied Inegöl and Bursa. He proclaimed himself Sultan of Anatolia, but he was defeated at Yenişehir and fled to Cairo . In 1482 he returned, supported by the local Mamluks, and conquered Eastern Anatolia, Ankara and Konya . But after another defeat, he had to flee to Rhodes . The war between the Ottomans and the Mamluks lasted from 1484 to 1491. Around 1478 the Sultan passed a kind of constitutional state law that had decidedly absolutist features and also granted the Sultan access to all important economic resources. This applied, for example, to mining and rice fields. With the victory of 1514 at Çaldıran against the Persian Safavids, the Ottomans were able to take Diyarbakır and the area on the upper Euphrates in possession. Finally Egypt followed.
This freed the Ottomans from the danger that the eastern allies with the western opponents. 1463–1479 Venice was again at war with the Ottomans, who conquered important areas of Venice in the Aegean Sea, such as the island of Negroponte (Euboea) in 1470. Venice sought the alliance with the Shah of Persia and attacked Smyrna, Halicarnassus and Antalya. But Persia and Karaman were defeated by the Ottomans, who now attempted an attack in Friuli and Apulia. A peace agreement was reached on January 24, 1479, and Venice had to pay 10,000 gold ducats as a tribute every year. In the wars from 1499 to 1503 and from 1537 to 1540 Venice was allied with Spain, but nevertheless lost Naxos, as did Cyprus in 1571 in what was now the fifth war with the Ottomans. The last war between Venice and Istanbul did not end until 1718.
In the long peacetime between the wars, however, trade recovered again and again, especially since the Mediterranean was of great importance as a trading hub until around 1600. From 1585 to 1610, however, the Ottoman Empire was hit by a long economic crisis that resulted in severe currency devaluation. In 1590, after twelve years of permanent war, peace was concluded with Iran, which secured the Eastern Anatolian conquests. In 1591, however, as a result of this war, there were extensive uprisings in Anatolia, which are considered part of the so-called Celali uprisings ; Tens of thousands of provincial troops (Sipahi) failed to comply with the presentation orders. Especially after 1584 the janissaries occupied the peasants' land in order to extort money or to lease it. Urfa became the center of resistance for 18 months in 1598.
After all, the regular fratricides that shook the empire when there was a change of ruler ended. Mehmed III. 1595 was the last ruler to act in this way against his 19 brothers. He tolerated a kind of subsidiary government from his mother Safiye, the Venetian Baffa. Venice continued to play an important role not only politically, but above all economically. The city succeeded in practically expanding its Middle Eastern spice purchases into a monopoly, the hubs of which were now Cairo and Alexandria. Venice paid almost exclusively with gold ducats, making it the largest “gold leak” in Europe.
The importance of the northern Anatolian cities, on the other hand, continued to decline until the 16th century, apart from the few port cities such as Sinop and Trabzon. This was due to the fact that non-Ottoman ships were not allowed in the Black Sea because the sea became almost the Istanbul Sea, a situation that was only changed in 1779 when Russian ships, which were soon allowed to sail into the Mediterranean, opened the sea lanes . Izmir, on the other hand, recovered and became extremely important for the trade of Anatolia. In 1580 it had only 2,000 inhabitants, but in 1650 it had 40,000 again. Between 1550 and 1650, its trade almost dwarfed that of Istanbul. But on the oceans, which now replaced the Mediterranean as the main trade route, the Ottomans could not compete with the Portuguese, who now controlled the spice trade. On the other hand, some cities, such as Konya or Amasya , were set up as princes' residences, so that they benefited from the corresponding luxury trade and prestige. Horses for the military as well as sheep and goats claimed large pastures in rural areas, and camels were also used.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire not only interacted with political and economic upheavals, it also had demographic consequences. Many residents of the territories lost to foreign powers preferred to remain Ottoman subjects or were expelled. When Russia occupied Crimea , perhaps 300,000 people moved into the Turkish Empire, another 425,000 followed in 1812 and 1828. During the Caucasus War between 1859 and 1864, large groups left the Caucasus, including 100,000 Nogai and 400,000 to 500,000 Circassians . Many refugees initially went to Rumelia, that is, to the European part of the empire, but after its partial loss in 1878, a significant number of them moved on to Anatolia. Perhaps a million people fled south in the course of the war with Russia that began in 1877. The causes of internal migration included pest plagues, drought and wars, but also earthquakes. Between 1500 and 1799, 377 earthquakes were counted. The "Little End of the World" on September 10, 1509 caused the earth to shake in the Marmara region for 22 hours. The earthquake of 1894 made the planned national exhibition impossible.
The expansion phase had already led to considerable forced relocations. As early as 1453, with the conquest of Constantinople, the Jewish community in Thessaloniki was dissolved. Most of its members went to the capital, like many of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 and a little later from Portugal. These Sephardim dominated the long-established Ashkenazi groups at the end of the 16th century . At that time Saloniki, Edirne and Safed were also important centers, while Anatolia benefited less from their economic activity.
Overall, Istanbul's access to Anatolia, but also to Rumelian areas, loosened to such an extent that centrifugal forces increasingly dominated local politics. In reality, as in parts of the Balkans, central and eastern Anatolia were ruled by several hundred local rulers known as “valley princes ” (derebeys) , of which the Canikogullan, who achieved a high status of autonomy on the Pontic coast, only with the help of other valley princes in Were to be kept in check.
In the course of the 18th century, the Ottomans could no longer prevent their power from crumbling in the outskirts of their vast empire. The governor Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt made himself practically independent, in 1831 Egyptian troops under Ibrahim Pasha occupied Palestine and Syria and defeated the Ottoman armies near Homs and Konya . In 1832 they advanced to Anatolia. In the Battle of Nisibis on June 24, 1839, the Ottomans were again defeated. Only the intervention of Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1840 forced Muhammad Ali Pasha to evacuate Syria and Palestine in 1841.
The Phanariot rule in the Danube principalities came to an end after more than a century in 1821 and in the 1820s the independence movement in Greece gained strength. Despite support from Egypt, Istanbul had to grant Greece independence in 1830.
Russia demanded control over the straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles , at the same time supported the Orthodox Christians there in the Balkans, as it saw itself as the protector of all Slavs. But Great Britain and France resisted the Russian expansion plans. For Great Britain, the most important trading partner of the Ottomans, it was on the one hand a matter of controlling the routes to India , and on the other hand of preventing Russia's attempts at supremacy in Asia. In the Crimean War (1853-1856), which was triggered by the Russian occupation of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldova , Great Britain, France and later Sardinia-Piedmont fought on the Ottoman side. In the Peace of Paris , the Black Sea was demilitarized .
In addition to the Armenians and Greeks, the Kurds , whose origins are disputed, represent one of the largest minorities in Anatolia A list of the tribes has been preserved from the 18th century. Kurdistan first became tangible as an administrative unit under the Great Seljuks in 1157. Before the pressure from the Ottoman and Persian empires became too strong, they succeeded in founding several Islamic dynasties in eastern Anatolia, western Iran and northern Iraq. The Anatolian dynasties included the Marwanids (990-1096) in northern and western Kurdistan with winter residence in Diyarbakir and summer residence in Farqin ( Silvan ). On the other hand, other Kurdish dynasties emerged outside Anatolia, such as the Rawadids (955-1071) in Azerbaijan with the capital Tabriz , the Hasanwayhids (around 950–1121) northeast of Kermanshah , the Shaddadids (951 to around 1171) in Transcaucasia in the area of the present-day Armenia and Azerbaijan and the Ayyubids (1171–1252) in Egypt and Syria. Other Kurdish dynasties were the Hazaraspids (1148–1424) in southwestern Iran and the Annazids (991–1116) on today's Iranian-Iraqi border. The Ayyubids were the most influential in Syria, their empire extended over parts of Kurdistan , Egypt, Syria and Yemen and their ruler Saladin defeated the Christian crusaders decisively in 1187 in the battle of Hattin .
In 1514, the predominantly Sunni Kurds were allied with the Sunni Ottomans and defeated the Shiite Safavids in the Battle of Tschaldiran . In gratitude, the Kurdish rulers (Kürt Hükümetleri) did not have to pay any tribute or provide any soldiers. There were also the Kurdish sanjaks , who like all sanjaks paid taxes and provided soldiers. In both cases, however, Istanbul accepted the inheritance of the local masters, which was otherwise unusual within the framework of the Tımar system, which only provided for a lifetime award. Important Kurdish princes in the Ottoman Empire were the Baban (1649-1850) with their seat in Silemani , the princes of Soran , who declared themselves independent in 1835, the Azizan in Hakkari , who can be traced back to the 13th century, and the princes of Bitlis (1182-1847). In 1596, Şerefhan , Prince of Bitlis , published the Scherefname (splendid script) in Persian , the oldest historical work that deals exclusively with the history of Kurdistan and the Kurds.
Attempts at reform, loss of territory, World War I and the end of Ottoman rule
From 1838 to 1876, under the leadership of the Grand Vizier Mustafa Reşid Pascha and later Ali Paschas and Fuad Paschas, attempts to carry out a “healing reorganization” (Tanzimat-ı Hayriye) took place . Non-Muslims were put on an equal footing with Muslims, the judicial and tax systems were reformed, and later tax leases were abolished. But on April 13, 1876, the state had to declare bankruptcy. The market in the Ottoman Empire was opened to the Europeans, especially the British, in 1838 (Balta Liman Agreement), and the import duties were below the export duties. The equality of Christians from 1856 onwards gave the Greeks and Armenians, but also other European and Levantine groups, supremacy in long-distance trade, while traditional trades continued to fall behind. The empire became an exporter of raw materials and an importer of European goods. European ways of life and capital increasingly dominated everyday life and the economy. This dominance only collapsed as a result of the wars over the Balkans and Crimea and the confrontation with the European, imperialist powers during the First World War. Until then, the main base of British trade was Smyrna, especially after the political dominance of France, which had prevailed since around 1853, was increasingly replaced by the British from 1870 onwards.
Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), who came to power through a coup d'état , announced a liberal constitution . When the Ottomans rejected Russian demands for the independence of some areas, war broke out . Russia occupied the European part of Turkey and advanced on the capital. On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was concluded , which enshrined the independence of Romania , Serbia , Montenegro and Bulgaria . Furthermore, the province of Kars came to Russia, Cyprus became British, albeit formally only in 1914. The Berlin Treaty gave all European powers greater influence.
The internal reforms were reversed, the parliament dissolved. Financially, the country continued to become dependent on the major European powers. After the national bankruptcy, the Administration de la Dette Publique Ottomane , founded by the seven most important European powers, took over the administration of the Ottoman debt, a large part of the financial administration, from 1881 onwards. Taxes on state monopolies such as tobacco, salt and alcohol as well as the taxes on fish sales in Istanbul, on fish and silk in Bursa, on the income from stamps and the taxes of several provinces flowed into the repayment of debt and thus to European, mainly French and British banks . European investments focused on raw materials and major projects such as the construction of the Baghdad Railway , with Germany being awarded the contract, which was able to strengthen its position until the First World War.
After 1900 the internal opposition forces grew stronger, especially the movement of the Young Turks , which had its starting point above all in Saloniki . In 1908 the constitution was reinstated. However, their government had to struggle with external pressure similar to that of the previous governments, because the empire was losing more and more of its peripheral areas. In 1911 Tripoli was lost to Italy. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkans alliance against the empire in 1912 , which thereby forfeited almost all European possessions including Edirnes . In 1913 the border with Bulgaria was determined.
During the First World War , the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers on August 2, 1914. The Young Turk Committee for Unity and Progress terminated the agreement of February 8, 1914 after the entry into the war. The Allies demanded rights of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles, which Istanbul refused. Between February 19, 1915 and January 9, 1916 there was heavy fighting for the Dardanelles at the Battle of Gallipoli ( Çanakkale Savaşı in Turkey , known as the "War of Tschanakkale"), where Turkish troops were over 315,000 men fended off a force of the British Empire of almost 470,000 men with German support under Otto Liman von Sanders . Around a quarter of a million people were killed in the process. On September 5, 1916, it terminated all other treaties and agreements that offered external powers the possibility of intervention, such as the Treaty of Paris (1856) , the Berlin Treaty (1878) or the Declaration of London (1871). In September 1918 the Ottomans suffered the decisive defeat.
Internally, too, the government proceeded with extreme brutality during the war, particularly against the minorities. In the middle of the 19th century there were over 220,000 Armenians in Constantinople. On April 24, 1915, two months after the fighting over the Dardanelles began, the government ordered the deportation of Armenian civilians from Constantinople. The resulting policy of deportations fell victim to between 600,000 and 1.5 million Armenians, which corresponded to up to two thirds of the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire (see genocide of the Armenians ).
In addition to the now independent Arabia, the empire was divided into spheres of interest according to the Sykes-Picot Agreement . The victorious powers occupied a large part of the Ottoman Empire in November 1918. The young Turks Cemal Pascha , Talât Pascha and Enver Pascha were released and fled. A resistance movement against the occupying powers developed. In the elections of December 1919, the liberation movement won a two-thirds majority and moved its headquarters to Angora, which later became Ankara. The 1920 by the Sublime Porte signed the Treaty of Sevres , but who knew the state's sovereignty, was not recognized by Ankara.
The war of liberation broke out in which Greek troops were defeated. The majority of the Greek civilian population had to leave Smyrna, which was now called Izmir . For the Greeks, who had lived in western Anatolia for around three millennia, the Asia Minor catastrophe followed . At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Turks were expelled from European areas, for example from Saloniki. On November 1, 1922, the sultanate was abolished and the Treaty of Lausanne was only signed by the new government. On November 4th, the Sultan's government resigned.
On October 13, 1923, Ankara was made the capital and on the 29th the republic was proclaimed. General Mustafa Kemal Pasha became President, Ismet Pasha became Prime Minister. The last Sultan Mehmed VI. had to leave the country as well as all other members of the dynasty.
Republic of Turkey
Today's Turkey emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire as a result of the First World War and the Turkish Liberation War . State founder Mustafa Kemal Ataturk endeavored to modernize Turkey through social reforms based on the model of various European nation states.
Turkey was constituted as a democratic republic . In 1922 the sultanate was abolished and in 1924 the caliphate . On May 24, 1924, a new constitution came into effect and the religious courts were repealed; later the fez and the veil were banned and coeducation was introduced. In the same year, both the Islamic calendar and the Rumi calendar used in parallel were abolished and replaced by the Gregorian calendar , and the metric system was introduced, as was Swiss private law in 1926. German commercial law and Italian criminal law followed . In 1928 and 1937, secularization and secularism were enshrined in the constitution, and in 1928 the Arabic script was replaced by the Latin script. In 1934 Ataturk gave women the right to vote .
The unitary state was laicist , but ignored minority rights. Nothing was changed in the domination of the military and civil servants who represented the “strong state”. On the basis of the Lausanne Treaty , the republic did not recognize the Kurds as an ethnic minority; the expulsions as a result of the Greco-Turkish war were accepted. Kurdish uprisings such as the Koçgiri uprising (1920), the Sheikh Said uprising (1925), the Ararat uprising (1926–1930) and the Dersim uprising (1938) were suppressed. Their language was not allowed to be used in public.
The successor İsmet İnönü continued the system known as "Kemalism" and in 1939 he succeeded in regaining Hatay, which had been French since the First World War . During the Second World War, Turkey remained neutral and signed a German-Turkish friendship treaty on June 18, 1941, which included a refusal to attack. Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan on February 23, 1945 and signed the UN Charter. In 1952 the country joined NATO together with Greece.
In the first really free elections, which took place in 1950, the right-wing conservative Democratic Party İnönü replaced the Republican People's Party , which was seen as a victory for the rural Anatolian population. This in turn was subject to the Aghas , who were influential until they were expelled by the government , of whom around 2000 returned in 1947 with the permission of the Kemalists. These in turn were closely connected with the sheikhs. Adnan Menderes was elected first prime minister in 1950. The economically successful politics was opposed to ruthless action against political opponents and ethnic minorities. In 1955 the Istanbul pogrom took place, which was directed primarily against Greeks.
There was growing political resistance to the Enabling Act passed in 1960. Finally , the military staged a coup , an important reason being the aversion to Kurdish demands for autonomy. The National Unity Committee was formed under General Cemal Gürsel , who later became President of Turkey , the Democratic Party was banned, and the Prime Minister was executed on September 17, 1961. İnönü became prime minister again. In many villages and small towns, the rival families of the landowners joined opposing parties, which divided rural society along the Agha family groups in many ways. This was especially true for Kurdistan, which was already poorer than the rest of Turkey and in which there were 36,000 villages with fewer than 2,000 inhabitants. Many farm workers had no land themselves and lived on half the harvest, where they otherwise grew cotton, wheat, etc. The emigration increased accordingly, so that there was a Kurdish quarter in every city; there Kurdish nationalism developed in the face of the continued attempts at assimilation. At the same time, the population grew faster than in the rest of Turkey. In 1967 mass demonstrations took place in Sivas and Diyarbakır, the first since 1938. In the following years the clashes escalated and shifted to the cities, where from 1965 to 1969 the number of students rose sharply from 100,000 to 150,000. This is where the left Kurdish groups had their political base.
The military staged a second coup on March 12, 1971 , and the government was dismissed. The army leadership called for reforms and the fight against terrorism, with which various political groups tried to achieve their goals. Only in October 1973 did parliamentary elections take place again , from which the democratic socialists under Bülent Ecevit emerged victorious. At the same time, under Necmettin Erbakan , an Islamist party entered parliament for the first time. The coalition between Islamists and socialists only lasted until the Cyprus crisis of 1974, during which Turkey occupied the north of the island. The Turks there mostly moved to the north, while the Greeks moved to the south. The Kurdistan Workers' Party , or PKK for short , came into being at another source of ethnic conflict, in Kurdistan .
The military staged another coup on September 12, 1980, and a new constitution was passed in a referendum in 1982 . The re-admitted parties were re-established, but continued to represent the mainstream of society. Ecevit founded the party of the Democratic Left and Süleyman Demirel founded the party of the right path , which shared with the motherland party the clientele of the former justice party , such as the Aghas, technocrats , conservatives and also Islamic circles. This was followed by changing coalitions, whereby economic growth was not yet able to produce a broad middle class. In addition, millions of Anatolians were forced to leave their homeland and move to Istanbul or Ankara. At the same time, the conflicts between the army and the rebelling Kurdish groups intensified.
During the Second Gulf War , Turkey established a security zone in eastern Anatolia in 1990, providing protection to hundreds of thousands of Iraqi Kurds. By 1994, around 2000 villages in southeastern Turkey had been evacuated by the military, while the PKK took action against villages that cooperated with the Turkish military.
In the local elections on March 28, 1994, the Islamists of the Welfare Party became the third largest party and provided mayors in İstanbul and Ankara. She emerged victorious in the December 24, 1995 elections, while the only woman in the prime ministerial office, Tansu Çiller , lost. However, since neither party wanted to form a coalition with it, a government of the other two major parties emerged, which broke up on June 6, 1996. On June 28, the Islamists received the government contract. But the government under Necmettin Erbakan came into contradiction to the secular state doctrine established by Kemal Ataturk, whose guardians saw themselves as the military. In the National Security Council, the generals von Erbakan called for decisive action against Islamist tendencies. Erbakan resigned on June 30, 1997. The Constitutional Court banned the party on January 16, 1998 , but was replaced by the Virtue Party .
In August 1996, parliament ended the state of emergency in the Kurdish provinces, but gave the army leadership extended powers with regard to military operations, arrests and censorship in all provinces of the country. In 1999 the PKK declared a ceasefire that lasted until 2004.
In the economic crisis of 2001 the gross national product fell by almost 10%, loans from the International Monetary Fund kept the government solvent. Ecevit's Minister of Economic Affairs, Kemal Derviş, reformed the vulnerable banking sector and fought corruption. The constitutional amendments of October 2001 and August 2002 formed the basis for the accession negotiations with the European Union. In addition, the pension and health insurance were reformed and unemployment insurance was introduced.
On November 3, 2002, Abdullah Gül became prime minister of the leader of his party; the AKP Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was only allowed to assume this office after the law was changed on March 11, 2003. The government continued the reforms in civil law that had begun under the Ecevit government (1999–2001) and which strengthened human and civil liberties (e.g. the right to assemble and demonstrate). The death penalty was also abolished, torture prohibited and the cultural freedoms of the Kurds strengthened. The use of the Kurdish language , Kurdish lessons and Kurdish radio and television channels were allowed. On December 17, 2004, the heads of state and government of the EU agreed in Brussels to start negotiations with Turkey on EU accession from October 3, 2005.
During the Iraq war in 2003, Turkey refused to allow the US and its allies to use their military bases. This was preceded by efforts by the Turkish army to invade the Kurdish part of Iraq, which was rejected internationally. After the arrest of Turkish units in northern Iraq by US troops, the so-called sack affair broke out . In early 2010, members of the army were arrested for alleged coup plans in 2002 and 2003 .
Meanwhile, economic growth remained unbroken, even though the financial and economic crisis hit the country from 2008 onwards. In addition to the opening of the markets, the low wages, the pent-up demand and the modernization of the organizational and infrastructure, the Turkish universities grew rapidly in number, size and quality. Istanbul founded its first university in 1900, and Ankara in 1925. In the 1980s there were around 25 state universities, and by 2003 their number rose to 75. In 2008 there were 94 state and 33 foundation universities; in 2012 there were already 171 together. The most important economic sectors are the textile industry, tourism, the automotive industry and the electronics industry.
At the same time, urbanization increased sharply, so that Istanbul in particular grew strongly, which now has well over 13 million inhabitants, followed by Ankara with 4.5 and Izmir with 3.8 million inhabitants, as well as Bursa and Adana with around 2 million. Since around three quarters of the country's residents now live in cities, the influx of people from the country is falling significantly.
Part of Istanbul's city center has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985 , with nine other sites including the ruins of Ḫattuša and Troy, the ancient city of Hierapolis , the Divriği Mosque , the Byzantine rock-hewn churches and residential complexes of Göreme and the old town of Safranbolu , since 2012 also Çatalhöyük (see List of UNESCO World Heritage, Turkey ).
literature
Overview works
- Feroz Ahmad: History of Turkey , Magnus, Essen 2005, ISBN 3-88400-433-6 .
- Gazi Çağlar : Turkey between Orient and Occident. A political analysis of their past and present , Unrast, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-89771-016-1 .
- Udo Steinbach : History of Turkey. 4th revised and updated edition, CH Beck, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-44743-3 .
- Peter Herz , Jörn Kobes (Ed.): Ethnic and religious minorities in Asia Minor. From Hellenistic antiquity to the Byzantine Middle Ages , Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1998, ISBN 3-447-03769-5 .
Prehistory and early history
- Clemens Lichter (Ed.): 12,000 years ago in Anatolia. The oldest monuments of mankind , Theiss, Stuttgart 2007 (exhibition catalog).
- Berkay Dinçer: The Lower Paleolithic in Turkey: Anatolia and Hominin Dispersals Out of Africa , in: Katerina Harvati, Mirjana Roksandic (Ed.): Paleoanthropology of the Balkans and Anatolia. Human Evolution and its Context , Springer, 2016, pp. 213–228.
- Işın Yalçınkaya, Kadriye Özçelik, Metin Kartal, Harun Taşkıran: Diffusion des cultures à bifaces en Turquie , in: Anadolu / Anatolia 35 (2009) 1–38 ( PDF; 5.54 MB ).
- Antonio G. Sagona, Paul E. Zimansky: Ancient Turkey , Routledge, London / New York 2009 (first traces up to the end of the Iron Age). ISBN 978-0-415-48123-6
- Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion in the Emergence of Civilization. Çatalhöyük as a Case Study , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-19260-6
- Bleda S. Düring: The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011 (covers the period from about 20,000 to 2,000 BC). ISBN 978-0-521-14981-5
- Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011. ISBN 978-0-19-537614-2
Antiquity
Relevant here are studies on ancient Asia Minor (most recently Volume VII, Münster 2011), plus studies on historical landscapes and studies on economic or urban history:
- David Magie: Roman rule in Asia Minor to the end of the third century after Christ. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1950.
- Stephen Mitchell : The Administration of Roman Asia from 133 BC to AD 250 , in: Werner Eck (Ed.): Local autonomy and Roman regulatory power in the imperial provinces from the 1st to 3rd centuries , Oldenbourg, Munich 1999, p. 17– 46.
- Elmar Schwertheim , Engelbert Winter (ed.): City and urban development in Asia Minor , Habelt, Bonn 2003. ISBN 3-7749-3164-X .
- Elmar Schwertheim: Asia Minor in Antiquity. From the Hittites to Constantine , 2nd edition, CH Beck, Munich 2010.
- Heinrich-Wilhelm Drexhage : Economic policy and economy in the Roman province of Asia in the time from Augustus to Diocletian's assumption of government , Habelt, Bonn 2007. ISBN 978-3-7749-3516-7 .
- Christian Marek : History of Asia Minor in Antiquity , CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-59853-1 .
Byzantium, Seljuks
- Mark Whittow: The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025 , Berkeley 1996.
- Donald M. Nicol : The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453 , 2nd ed., Cambridge 1993.
- Angeliki E. Laiou (Ed.): The economic history of Byzantium. From the seventh through the fifteenth century 3 vols., Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington 2002, ISBN 0-88402-288-9 . (with chapters on Asia Minor)
- Ralph-Johannes Lilie : Byzanz - The second Rome , settlers, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-88680-693-6 .
- Timothy E. Gregory: A History of Byzantium , Malden / Oxford 2005.
- Dominique Farale: Les turcs face à l'occident. Des origines aux Seldjoukides , Économica, Paris 2008, ISBN 978-2-7178-5595-1 .
- John Haldon (Ed.): A Social History of Byzantium , Blackwell, Oxford 2009.
- Peter Schreiner : Byzanz 565–1453 , 4th updated edition. Oldenburg, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-486-70271-2 .
Ottoman times and republic
- Bodo Guthmüller, Wilhelm Kühlmann (Ed.): Europe and the Turks in the Renaissance , Niemeyer, Tübingen 2000, ISBN 3-484-36554-4 .
- Michael E. Meeker: A Nation of Empire. The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity , University of California Press, Berkeley 2002, ISBN 0-520-22526-0 .
- David Gaunt, Jan Beṯ-Şawoce: Massacres, Resistance, Protectors. Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I , Gorgias Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0 .
- Vartkes Yeghiayan: British Reports on Ethnic Cleansing in Anatolia, 1919–1922: The Armenian-Greek Section. Center for Armenian Remembrance, Glendale CA 2007, ISBN 978-0-9777153-2-9 .
- Klaus Kreiser : The Ottoman State 1300-1922 , Oldenbourg, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-486-58588-9 .
- David McDowall: A Modern History of the Kurds , 3rd ed., IB Tauris, London 2009, ISBN 978-1-85043-416-0 .
- Baki Tezcan: The Second Ottoman Empire. Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-51949-6 .
History of science
- Erol Özvar: Economic History in Turkey , in: Francesco Ammannati (Ed.): Where is Economic History Going? Methods and Prospects from the 13th to the 18th Centuries. Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica "Francesco Datini", Firenze University Press, Florence 2011, pp. 79-104. (History of the economic history of the Ottoman Empire)
- Miranda Pettengill: Nationalism, Archeology, and the Antiquities Trade in Turkey and Iraq , Macalester College, 2012 ( PDF; 227 kB ).
Web links
Remarks
- ↑ Elmar Schwertheim : Asia Minor in antiquity. From the Hittites to Konstantin , CH Beck, 2nd reviewed edition, 2010, p. 9 f.
- ^ D. Maddy et al .: The earliest securely-dated hominin artefact in Anatolia? , in: Quaternary Science Reviews 109 (2015) 68-75, doi: 10.1016 / j.quascirev.2014.11.021
- ↑ On the Caucasus area see Vladimir Borisovich Doronichev: Le Paléolithique ancien de l'Europe orientale et du Caucase / Lower Paleolithic in Eastern Europe and Caucasus. In: L'Anthropologie 115, 2011, pp. 197–246 ( full text ).
- ^ Metin Kartal: Karain Mağarası Kazıları 2007. Excavations at the Karain Cave in 2007. In: ANMED. News of Archeology from Anatolia's Mediterranean Areas. 6, 2008, p. 25 ( PDF, 658 kB ).
- ↑ Ludovic Slimak et al .: KaletepeDeresi 3 (Turquie), aspects archéologiques, chronologiques et paleontologiques d'une séquence pléistocène en Anatolie centrale. In: Comptes Rendus Palevol 3.5, 2004, pp. 411-420 ( PDF; 737 kB ).
- ^ Antonio Sagona: The Heritage of Eastern Turkey from Earliest Settlements to Islam. Macmillan Education, Melbourne 2008, p. 33.
- ↑ On the trade and identification of the individual obsidian stores on Göllü Dağ, see Didier Binder et al .: New investigations of the Göllüdağ obsidian lava flows system: a multi-disciplinary approach. In: Journal of Archaeological Science 38, 2011, pp. 3174-3184.
- ↑ Ludovic Slimak et al .: Kaletepe Deresi 3 (Turkey): Archaeological evidence for early human settlement in Central Anatolia. In: Journal of Human Evolution 54, 2008, pp. 99-111.
- ^ Işın Yalçınkaya, Kadriye Özçelik, Metin Kartal, Harun Taşkıran: Diffusion des cultures à bifaces en Turquie. 2009, p. 5 ( PDF; 5.54 MB ).
- ^ Bleda S. Düring: The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies. 2011, p. 31.
- ↑ James Mellaart: The Neolithic of the Near East. Scribner, New York 1975, p. 94.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the plateau. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) 2011, pp. 99–124, here pp. 104–106.
- ↑ Marcel Otte et al .: The Epi-Palaeolithic of Öküzini cave (SW Anatolia) and its mobiliary art. In: Antiquity 69, 1995, pp. 931-944.
- ^ Bleda S. Düring: The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies. 2011, p. 36.
- ^ Daniel T. Potts: A Companion to the Archeology of the Ancient Near East. New York 2012, p. 148.
- ↑ Andrew S. Fairbairn, Emma Jenkins, Douglas Baird, Geraldine Jacobsen, 9th millennium plant subsistence in the central Anatolian highlands: new evidence from Pınarbaşı, Karaman Province, central Anatolia . Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 2014, p. 801
- ^ William BF Ryan: Status of the Black Sea Flood Hypothesis. Marine Geology and Geophysics. In: The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement. Springer, Heidelberg 2007, ISBN 978-1-4020-4774-9 ( PDF; 864 kB ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove it Note. ).
- ↑ This section follows Mehmet Özdoğan: Archaeological Evidence on the Westward Expansion of Farming Communities from Eastern Anatolia to the Aegean and the Balkans , in: Current Anthropology 52 (2011) 415-430 ( full text at JSTOR ).
- ↑ Bleda S. Düring: The Early Holocene Occupation of north-central Anatolia between 10,000 and 6,000 BC cal: investigating an archaeological terra incognita , in: Anatolian Studies 58 (2008) 15-46 ( full text at JSTOR ).
- ↑ Müge Şevketoğlu: Early settlements and precurement of raw materials: new evidence based on research at Akanthou-Arkosykos (Tatlısu-Çiflikdüzü), Northern Cyprus , in: TÜBA AR- 11 (2008) 63-72.
- ↑ Michael Rosenberg, Asli Erim-Özdoğan: The Neolithic in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 125–149, here pp. 126–127.
- ↑ Michael Rosenberg, Asli Erim-Özdoğan: The Neolithic in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 125–149, here p. 128.
- ↑ Michael Rosenberg, Asli Erim-Özdoğan: The Neolithic in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 125–149, here p. 131.
- ↑ Michael Rosenberg, Asli Erim-Özdoğan: The Neolithic in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 125–149, here p. 135.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 99–124, here p. 106.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 99–124, here p. 107– 110.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 99–124, here p. 110.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 99–124, here p. 111– 112.
- ↑ Mihriban Özbaşaran: The Neolithic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 99–124, here p. 114.
- ^ Bleda S. Düring: The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies. 2011, p. 126.
- ↑ RJ King et al .: Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian Influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic , in: Annals of Human Genetics 72 (2008). 205-214. PMID 18269686 .
- ↑ Patricia Balaresque, Georgina R. Bowden et al .: A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for European Paternal Lineages , in: PLoS Biology 8 (2010), p. E1000285, doi : 10.1371 / journal.pbio.1000285 .
- ^ Arkadiusz Marciniak, Lech Czerniak, Social Transformations in the Late Neolithic and the Early Chalcolithic Periods in Central Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 57 (Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West in the Archeology of Ancient Anatolia) 2007, 124. JSTOR 20455397 .
- ↑ This section follows Ulf-Dietrich Schoop: The Chalcolitic on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 150–173 and Douglas Baird: The Late Epipaleolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic of the Anatolian Plateau, 13,000–4000 BC , in: Daniel T. Potts (Ed.): A Companion to the Archeology of the Ancient Near East , New York 2012, p. 431– 465.
- ^ H. Föll: Early Places With Metals: Cayönü Tepesi , University of Kiel.
- ^ Bleda S. Düring: The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies. 2011, pp. 135-136.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 88.
- ^ University of Chicago: Artifacts from Hamoukar .
- ↑ This section is based primarily on Sharon R. Steadman: The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, p 229–259 and Ayşe Tuba Ökse: The Early Bronze Age in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 260– 289
- ↑ Çadır Höyük .
- ↑ Jürgen Seeher : The Bronze Age necropolis of Demircihüyük-Sariket. Wasmuth, Tübingen 2000, ISBN 3-8030-1765-3 .
- ^ Sharon R. Steadman: The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 229-259, here P. 235.
- ^ Kaneš , Oxford Reference.
- ↑ Titris Hoyuk Archaeological Project .
- ↑ Ayşe Tuba Ökse: The Early Bronze Age in Southeastern Anatolia , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 260–289, here p 270.
- ↑ The following, adapted from Catherine Marro: Eastern Anatolia in the Early Bronze Age , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 290–309.
- ↑ Hoyuk at Norsuntepe ( Memento from May 26, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ This section follows Cécile Michel: The Kārum Period on the Plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, pp. 313–336.
- ↑ Cécile Michel: The Karum Period on the plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10.000 to 323 BCE) , 2011, pp 313-336, here p 314 .
- ↑ Cécile Michel: The Karum Period on the plateau , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10.000 to 323 BCE) , 2011, pp 313-336, here p 320 .
- ↑ This section follows Nicola Laneri, Mark Schwartz: Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia in the Middle Bronze Age , in: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE) , 2011, p 337-360.
- ↑ The Hirbemerdon Tepe Archaeological Project ( Memento from May 23, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Nicola Laneri, Mark Schwartz: Southeastern and Eastern Anatolia in the Middle Bronze Age. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 337-360, here p. 354.
- ↑ This section follows Trevor Bryce : The Late Bronze Age in the West and the Aegean. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 363-375.
- ↑ Both numbers are mentioned in Trevor Bryce (Ed.): The Routledge Handbook of The People and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge, New York 2009, p. 74.
- ↑ Article Arzawa. In: Charles Burney (ed.): Historical Dictionary of the Hittites. Scarecrow Press, Lanham / Toronto / Oxford 2004, pp. 33–35, here p. 34.
- ↑ Cf. Jörg Klinger : The Hittites. CH Beck, Munich 2007, p. 99f.
- ↑ see above all the reservations with Susanne Heinhold-Krahmer : Has the identity of Ilios with Wiluša been finally proven? in: Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici. 45, 2004, pp. 29-57; Rejecting the equation: Vangelis D. Pantazis: Wilusa: Reconsidering the Evidence. In: Klio 91, 2009, No. 2, pp. 291-310, who wants to equate Wilusa with Beycesultan .
- ↑ The equation with a Mycenaean state was first represented in 1924 by Emil Forrer, who also considered some personal names mentioned in connection with Aḫḫijawa to be Greek, which is now accepted by a large part of the research. See Emil O. Forrer : Prehomeric Greeks in the cuneiform texts of Boghazköi. Communications from the German Orient Society in Berlin 63, 1924, pp. 1-24. on-line
- ↑ An overview of the arguments in favor of Thebes, including recent evidence from Klaus Tausend: Comments on the identification of the Aḫḫijawa. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann , Dorit Engster, Alexander Nuss (Hrsg.): From the Bronze Age history to the modern reception of antiquities. Syngramma Vol. 1, Universitätsverlag Göttingen 2012, pp. 145–156.
- ↑ This section follows with regard to the archeology Jürgen Seeher: The Plateau: The Hittites. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 375–376, following Richard H. Beal on political history: Hittite Anatolia. A Political History. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 579-603. See also the evidence in Horst Klengel: History of the Hittite Empire. Brill, Leiden / Boston / Cologne 1998.
- ↑ Jörg Klinger: The Hittites. CH Beck, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-53625-0 , p. 42.
- ↑ Horst Klengel : Niqmepa. In: Dietz-Otto Edzard et al. (Ed.): Real Lexicon of Assyriology and Near Eastern Archeology . Volume 9, de Gruyter, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-11-017296-8 , pp. 568-569.
- ↑ Manfred Weippert: Historical text book on the Old Testament. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2010, p. 208, note 50.
- ^ Translation by Manfred Weippert: Historical text book on the Old Testament. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2010, p. 208 f.
- ^ Carlo D'Adamo: Sardi, Etruschi e Italici nella guerra di Troia. Edizioni Pendragon, Bologna 2011.
- ↑ This section follows Marie-Henriette Gates: Southern and Southeastern Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 393-412.
- ↑ This section follows Lisa Kealhofer, Peter Grave: The Iron Age on the Central Anatolian Plateau. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 415-442.
- ^ C. Brian Rose, Gareth Darbyshire (Ed.): The New Chronology of Iron Age Gordion. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia 2011, p. 45.
- ↑ Lydian Period (900 - 547 BCE. ) ( Memento from August 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ gates Kjeilen: Lydia. ( Memento of August 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) In: LookLex Encyclopaedia.
- ↑ Kaman-Kalehöyük. Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archeology website.
- ↑ On the disc-turned Early Iron Age ceramics with connections to the goods of the Great Empire in Hattuša: Hermann Genz : The Iron Age in Central Anatolia in the light of the ceramic finds from Büyükkaya in Boğazköy / Hattuša. TÜBA-AR 3, 2000, pp. 35-54; on this in Kuşaklı ibid p. 39.
- ↑ This section follows Lori Khatchadourian: The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 464-499.
- ↑ Wolfram Kleiss: On the expansion of Urartus to the north. In: Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 25, 1992, pp. 91–94.
- ^ Kemalettin Köroğlu: The Northern Border of the Urartian Kingdom. In: Altan Çilingiroğlu, G. Darbyshire, H. French (Ed.): Anatolian Iron Ages 5, Proceedings of the 5th Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium Van, 6. – 10. August 2001. British Institute of Archeology at Ankara Monograph 3, 2005, p. 103.
- ↑ Miroslav Salvini: The Influence of the Urartu Empire on the Political Conditions on the Iranian Plateau. In: Ricardo Eichmann , Hermann Parzinger (ed.): Migration and culture transfer. Habelt, Bonn 2001, ISBN 3-7749-3068-6 , p. 349.
- ↑ This section follows Timothy Matney: The Iron Age of Southeastern Anatolian. In: Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). 2011, pp. 443-463.
- ↑ If one follows the Nabonidus Chronicle, Cyrus killed 547 BC. After a campaign a king whose country is now read as "Urartu", no longer as "Lydia". The Chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea sees the conquest in 547 BC. Chr.
- ↑ Sebastian Brather: Ethnic interpretations in early historical archeology. History, basics and alternatives. de Gruyter, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-11-018040-5 , p. 246: “Without the Hellenistic historiography, d. H. based only on sporadic finds, archaeologists would not look for Celts in Asia Minor ”.
- ↑ Elmar Schwertheim: Asia Minor in Antiquity: From the Hittites to Constantine. 2005, p. 75.
- ↑ Bernhard Maier: The Celts. Your story from the beginning to the present. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-46094-1 , p. 101.
- ↑ Thomas Grünwald: Celts. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . Volume 16, de Gruyter, Berlin 2000, p. 375.
- ↑ Bernhard Maier: The Celts. Your story from the beginning to the present. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-46094-1 , p. 102.
- ^ Roger B. McShane: The Foreign Policy of the Attalids of Pergamum. University of Illinois Press, Urbana IL 1964, p. 152.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 487.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, pp. 493-494.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 502.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 511.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 515.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, pp. 555-556.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, pp. 488-489.
- ^ Christian Marek: History of Asia Minor in antiquity. 2010, p. 575.
- ↑ The article follows the brief description by Sabine Hübner : The clergy in the society of late ancient Asia Minor. Steiner, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-515-08727-3 .
- ↑ On the heresies of Asia Minor see William Moir Calder : The Epigraphy of the Anatolian Heresies. In: Anatolian Studies presented to Sir William Ramsay. Manchester University Press, Manchester 1923, pp. 59-91.
- ↑ Codex Theodosianus 5, 18, 1; Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto : The social structure of late antiquity. In: Alexander Demandt, Josef Engemann (Ed.): Konstantin der Große. Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus. von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2007, ISBN 978-3-8053-3688-8 , p. 188.
- ↑ Peter Sarris: Empires of Faith. The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011, p. 31.
- ↑ Hans-Georg Beck: The Byzantine Millennium. CH Beck, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-406-05997-X , p. 47.
- ^ Leslie Brubaker: Inventing Byzantine Iconoclasm . London 2012, p. 32ff.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, p. 7.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, pp. 7-8.
- ^ Hans Theunissen: Ottoman-Venetian Diplomatics: The 'ahd-names. The Historical Background and the Development of a Category of Political-Commercial Instruments together with an Annotated Edition of a Corpus of Relevant Documents. In: Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies 1, 2, 1998, pp. 1–698, here p. 14.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, pp. 24-25.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, p. 25.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, p. 28.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, pp. 16-17.
- ^ Klaus Kreiser: The Ottoman State 1300-1922. 2008, p. 18.
- ↑ Hakan Özoğlu: Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State. Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. State University of New York Press 2004, p. 26.
- ↑ Hakan Özoğlu: Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State. Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. State University of New York Press 2004, p. 27.
- ↑ This and the following according to Oliver Jens Schmitt : Levantiner. Life worlds and identities of an ethno-denominational group in the Ottoman Empire in the "long 19th century" . Oldenbourg, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-486-57713-1 , p. 91.
- ↑ Wolfgang Gust (ed.): The genocide of the Armenians 1915/16. Documents from the Political Archive of the German Foreign Office. zu Klampen, Springe 2005, p. 519.
- ^ David McDowall: A Modern History of the Kurds. 2004, p. 399.
- ↑ Martin Strohmeier, Lale Yalçın-Heckmann: The Kurds. CH Beck, Munich 2000, ISBN 3-406-42129-6 , p. 103.
- ^ David McDowall: A Modern History of the Kurds. 2004, p. 402.
- ^ David McDowall: A Modern History of the Kurds. 2004, p. 410.
- ^ David McDowall: A Modern History of the Kurds. 2004, p. 413.
- ↑ Şeyda Ozil: status and perspective of German in Turkey. In: Manfred Durzak, Nilüfer Kuruyazıcı (ed.): Intercultural encounters. Festschrift for Şara Sayın. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2004, ISBN 3-8260-2899-6 , p. 268 .
