Myers–Briggs Type Indicator and Neurofibromatosis: Difference between pages

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{{Infobox_Disease |
The '''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator''' (MBTI) assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions.<ref name=Myers/>{{rp|1}} These preferences were extrapolated from the typological theories originated by [[Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]], as published in his 1921 book ''[[Psychological Types]]'' (English edition, 1923).<ref>{{cite book | author=Jung, Carl Gustav | date=August 1, 1971 | chapter= Psychological Types | title=Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6 | publisher=Princeton University Press| isbn=0-691-09774}}</ref> The original developers of the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, [[Isabel Briggs Myers]]. They began creating the indicator during [[World War II]], believing that a knowledge of personality preferences would help women who were entering the industrial workforce for the first time identify the sort of war-time jobs where they would be "most comfortable and effective".<ref name=Myers>{{cite book |author=Myers, Isabel Briggs with Peter B. Myers|title=Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type |publisher=Davies-Black Publishing |location=Mountain View, CA |year=1980, 1995 |pages= |isbn=0-89106-074-X |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>{{rp|xiii}} The initial questionnaire grew into the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which was first published in 1962. The MBTI focuses on normal populations and emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearman |first=Roger R.|coauthors=Sarah C. Albritton|title=I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You|publisher=Davies-Black Publishing|location=Palo Alto, California|date=1997|edition=First|pages=xiii|isbn=0891060960}}</ref>
Name = Neurofibromatosis |
Image = Neurofibromatosis.jpg|
Caption = Back of an elderly woman with Neurofibromatosis.|
DiseasesDB = |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|Q|85|0|q|80}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|237.7}} |
ICDO = 9540/0 |
OMIM = |
MedlinePlus = |
eMedicineSubj = derm |
eMedicineTopic = 287 |
MeshID = D017253 |
}}


'''Neurofibromatosis''' is a [[genetic disorder|genetically-transmitted disease]] in which nerve tissue grows [[tumors]] (e.g. [[neurofibroma]]s) that may be harmless or may cause serious damage by compressing nerves and other tissues. The disorder affects all neural crest cells ([[Schwann cells]], [[melanocytes]], endoneurial fibroblasts). Cellular elements from these cell types proliferate excessively throughout the body forming tumors and the melanocytes function abnormally resulting in disordered skin pigmentation.The tumors may cause bumps under the skin, colored spots, skeletal problems, pressure on [[spinal nerve root]]s, and other neurological problems. <ref>http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec06/ch088/ch088d.html Merck Manual Home Edition,
Some academic psychologists have criticized the MBTI instrument in research literature, claiming that it "lacks convincing validity data."<ref>{{cite book| author=Hunsley J, Lee CM, Wood JM |year=2004| chapter= Controversial and questionable assessment techniques| title=Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.)| publisher= Guilford| isbn= 1-59385-070-0}}, p. 65</ref><ref name= McCrae>{{cite journal | author=McCrae, R R; Costa, P T | year=1989 | title= Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator From the Perspective of the Five-Factor Model of Personality | journal=Journal of Personality| volume=57| pages=17-40 | pmid = 2709300 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00759.x }}</ref><ref name=Stricker>{{cite journal | author=Stricker, L J; Ross, J | year=1964 | title= An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian Personality Typology | journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology| volume=68| pages=62–71 | doi= 10.1037/h0043580}}</ref><ref name= Matthews/> Proponents and sellers of the test cite unblinded anecdotal predictions of individual behavior,<ref name=Tieger>{{cite book |author=Barron-Tieger, Barbara; Tieger, Paul D. |title=Do what you are: discover the perfect career for you through the secrets of personality type |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1995 |pages= |isbn=0-316-84522-1 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> and claim that the indicator has been found to meet or exceed the reliability of other psychological instruments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/328/7450/1244|title=Response to Paul Matthews' criticism|last=Clack|first=Gillian |coauthors=Judy Allen|accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref> For most adults (75-90%), though not for children, the MBTI is reported to give the same result for 3–4 preferences when the test is administered to the same person more than once (although the period between measurements is not stated).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capt.org/mbti-assessment/reliability-validity.htm|title=CAPT (Center for Applications of Psychological Type)|last=Lawrence|first=Gordon|coauthors=Charles Martin|accessdate=2008-04-20}}</ref> Some studies have found strong support for construct validity, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability, although variation was observed. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://epm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/46/3/745|title=Educational and Psychological Measurement|last=Thompson|first=Bruce|coauthors=Gloria M. Borrello|date=1986|work=Construct Validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|publisher=SAGE Publications|accessdate=2008-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://epm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/62/4/590|title=Educational and Psychological Measurement|last=Capraro|first=Robert M.|coauthors=Mary Margaret Capraro|date=2002|work=Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Score Reliability Across: Studies a Meta-Analytic Reliability Generalization Study|publisher=SAGE Publications|accessdate=2008-04-20}}</ref>
"Neurofibromatosis"</ref>


Neurofibromatosis is autosomal dominant, which means that it is autosomal (it affects males and females equally often) and dominant (only one copy of the affected gene is needed to get the disorder). Therefore, if only one parent has neurofibromatosis, his or her children have a 50% chance of developing the condition as well. Disease severity in affected individuals, however, can vary (this is called variable [[expressivity]]). Moreover, in around half of cases there is no other affected family member because a new mutation has occurred.
The definitive published source of reference on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is ''The Manual'' produced by CPP,<ref name=Manual>{{cite book | author=Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. |year=1998 | title=MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator) | publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition| isbn=0-89106-130-4}}</ref>
from which much of the information in this article is drawn, along with training materials from CPP and their European training partners, Oxford Psychologists Press. However, a popularized source of the model, with an original test, is published in [[David Keirsey|David Keirsey's]] book [[Please Understand Me]].


==Types==
The registered [[trademark]] rights to the terms ''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator'' and ''MBTI'' have been assigned from the publisher of the test, CPP, Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [[Trust law|Trust]].<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press | date=2004 | url= https://online.cpp-db.com/Inc/Trademark_Guidelines.pdf | title=Trademark Guidelines| access-date=December 20, 2004}}</ref>
* [[Neurofibromatosis type I]] [[Incidence (epidemiology)|Incidence]] is 1:4,000
* [[Neurofibromatosis type II]] (or "MISME Syndrome"). [[Incidence (epidemiology)|Incidence]] is 1:25,000
* [[Schwannomatosis]]. [[Incidence (epidemiology)|Incidence]] is unknown but thought to be 1:40,000


== Concepts ==
==Diagnostic Criteria==
===Neurofibromatosis type 1===
As the MBTI ''Manual'' states, the MBTI "is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI."<ref name=manual_2>{{cite book|last=Myers|first=Isabel Briggs|coauthors=Mary H. McCaulley|title=Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press|location=Palo Alto, CA|date=1985|edition=2nd|pages=|isbn=0-89106-027-8}}</ref>{{rp|1}}
Neurofibromatosis [[NF1|type 1]] - mutation of neurofibromin [[chromosome 17]]q11.2. The diagnosis of NF1 is made if any two of the following seven criteria are met:
<br />
* Two or more [[neurofibroma]]s on the skin or under the skin '''or''' one plexiform neurofibroma (a large cluster of tumors involving multiple nerves); Neurofibromas are the subcutaneous lumps that are characteristic of the disease and increase in number with age.
* [[Freckling]] of the [[groin]] or the [[axilla]] ([[arm pit]]).
* [[Café au lait spot]]s (pigmented birthmarks). Six or more measuring 5 mm in greatest diameter in prepubertal individuals and over 15 mm in greatest diameter in postpubertal individuals
* Skeletal abnormalities, such as sphenoid dysplasia or thinning of the cortex of the long bones of the body (i.e. bones of the leg, potentially resulting in [[genu varum|bowing of the legs]])
* [[Lisch nodule]]s ([[hamartoma]]s of [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]]), freckling in the iris.
* Tumors on the [[optic nerve]], also known as an optic glioma
* A first-degree relative with a diagnosis of NF1


Fundamental to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the [[theory]] of [[psychological type]] as originally developed by [[C. G. Jung]].<ref name=Myers/>{{rp|xiii}} Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions:
* The "rational" (judging) functions: Thinking and Feeling
* The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: Sensing and Intuition
Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form.<ref name=Myers/>{{rp|17}} From Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based.
=== Type ===
The Myers-Briggs typology model regards personality type as similar to left or right handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of thinking and acting. The MBTI sorts some of these psychological differences into four opposite pairs, or "dichotomies," with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these types is "better" or "worse"; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that individuals naturally ''prefer'' one overall combination of type differences.<ref name=Myers/>{{rp|9}} In the same way that writing with the left hand is hard work for a right-hander, so people tend to find using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, even if they can become more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development.


[[Image:Neurofibromatosis plexiform neurofriboma 3.jpg|thumb|right|plexiform neurofibroma]]
The 16 different types are often referred to by an abbreviation of four letters, the initial letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of ''iNtuition''), for instance:
[[Image:Early neurofibromatosis.jpg|thumb|Patient with multiple small cutaneous neurofibromas and a 'café au lait spot' (bottom of photo, to the right of centre). A biopsy has been taken of one of the lesions]]


===Neurofibromatosis type 2===
* '''[[ESTJ]]''' - Extraversion, Sensing, Thinking, Judging
Neurofibromatosis type 2 - mutation of merlin [[chromosome 22]]q12
* '''[[INFP]]''' - Introversion, iNtuition, Feeling, Perceiving
* [[bilateral]] [[tumor]]s, [[acoustic neuroma]]s on the [[vestibulocochlear nerve]], located on the eighth cranial nerve leading to hearing loss
** In fact, the hallmark of NF 2 is [[hearing loss]] due to [[acoustic neuroma]]s around the age of twenty
* the tumors may cause:
** [[headache]]
** [[balance disorder|balance problem]]s, and [[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]]
** [[facial weakness]]/[[paralysis]]
** patients with NF2 may also develop other [[brain tumors]], as well as spinal tumors
** [[Deafness]] and [[Tinnitus]]
*Any relative with NF-2, diagnosed or not


===Schwannomatosis===
And so on for all 16 possible type combinations.
Schwannomatosis - gene involved has yet to be identified
# Multiple Schwannomas occur.
# The Schwannomas develop on cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves.
# Chronic pain, and sometimes numbness, tingling and weakness.
# About 1/3 of patients have segmental Schwannomatosis, which means that the Schwannomas are limited to a single part of the body, such as an arm, a leg or the spine.
# Unlike the other forms of NF, the Schwannomas do not develop on vestibular nerves, and as a result, no loss of hearing is associated with Schwannomatosis.
# Patients with Schwannomatosis do not have learning disabilities related to the disease.


=== The four dichotomies ===
{| class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 20%;"
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Dichotomies'''
|-
| style="background: | '''E'''xtraversion
| style="background: | '''I'''ntroversion
|-
| style="background: | '''S'''ensing
| style="background: | i'''N'''tuition
|-
| style="background: | '''T'''hinking
| style="background: | '''F'''eeling
|-
| style="background: | '''J'''udging
| style="background: | '''P'''erceiving
|-
|}


One must keep in mind, however, that neurofibromatosis can occur in and affect nearly all of the organ systems, whether that entails simply compressing them (from tumor growth) or in fact altering the organs in some fundamental way. This disparity in the disease is one of many factors that makes it difficult to diagnose, and eventually find a prognosis for.
The four pairs of preferences or '''dichotomies''' are shown in the table to the right.


==Genetics and Hereditability ==
Note that the terms used for each [[dichotomy]] have specific technical meanings relating to the MBTI which differ from their everyday usage. For example, people with a preference for Judging over Perceiving are not necessarily more "judgmental" or less "perceptive".
[[Image:Autosomal Dominant Pedigree Chart.svg|thumb|right|[[NF-1]] and [[NF-2]] may be inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] fashion, as well as through random mutation.]]
Neurofibromatosis type 1 is due to [[mutation]] on [[chromosome 17]]q11.2 , the gene product being [[Neurofibromin]] ( a [[GTPase]] activating enzyme).<ref>Fauci, et al ''Harrison's Principle of Internal Medicine'' 16th Ed. p 2453 </ref>


Neurofibromatosis type 2 is due to [[mutation]] on [[chromosome 22]]q , the gene product is [[Merlin (protein)|Merlin]], a [[cytoskeletal]] protein.
Nor does the MBTI instrument measure aptitude; it simply indicates for one preference over another.<ref name=manual_2/>{{rp|3}} Someone reporting a high score for Extraversion over Introversion cannot be correctly described as 'more' Extraverted: they simply have a ''clear'' preference.


Both NF1 and NF2 are [[autosomal dominant]] disorders, meaning that only one copy of the mutated gene need be inherited to pass the disorder. A child of a parent with NF1 or NF2 and an unaffected parent will have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder.
Point scores on each of the dichotomies can vary considerably from person to person, even among those with the same type. However, Isabel Myers considered the ''direction'' of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the ''degree'' of the preference (for example, very clear vs. slight).<ref name=Manual/>
Complicating the question of heritability is the distinction between genotype and phenotype, that is, between the genetics and the actual manifestation of the disorder. In the case of NF1, no clear links between genotype and phenotype have been found, and the severity and specific nature of the symptoms may vary widely among family members with the disorder.<ref>Korf, Bruce E. and Allan E. Rubenstein. 2005. ''Neurofibromatosis: A Handbook for Patients, Families, and Health Care Professionals.''</ref> In the case of NF2, however, manifestations are similar among family members; a strong genotype-phenotype correlation is believed to exist (ibid).


Both NF1 and NF2 can also appear to be spontaneous mutation, with no family history. These cases account for about one half of neurofibromatosis cases (ibid).
=== Attitudes: Extraversion (E) / Introversion (I) ===
The preferences for '''Extraversion''' (thus spelled in Myers-Briggs jargon) and '''Introversion''' are sometimes referred to as ''[[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]]''. Briggs and Myers recognized that each of the functions can show in the external world of behavior, action, people and things (''extraverted attitude'') or the internal world of ideas and reflection (''introverted attitude''). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator sorts for an overall preference for one or the other of these.


Similar to [[polydactyly]], although NF is a dominant mutation, it is not prevalent in society. Neurofibromatosis-1 is found in approximately 1 in 2,500-3,000 live births (carrier incidence 0.0004, gene frequency 0.0002). NF-2 is less common, having one case in 50,000-120,000 live births.<ref>Jennifer R. Kam, Jan. 2007</ref>
People with a preference for Extraversion draw energy from action: they tend to act, then reflect, then act further. If they are inactive, their level of energy and motivation tends to decline. Conversely, those whose preference is Introversion become less energized as they act: they prefer to reflect, then act, then reflect again. People with Introversion preferences need time out to reflect in order to rebuild energy.
The Introvert's flow is directed inward toward concepts and ideas and the Extravert's is directed outward towards people and objects. There are several contrasting characteristics between Extraverts and Introverts: Extraverts desire breadth and are action-oriented, while introverts seek depth and are thought-oriented.


==How It Works==
The terms ''Extravert'' and ''Introvert'' are used in a special sense when discussing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
Neurofibromatosis affects humans on a genetic level, meaning that it either destroys, or renders defective a specific gene.
NF-1
*The gene that NF-1 affects is large, on band 17q11.2. It encodes for a protein called [[neurofibromin]], otherwise known as "the tumor suppressor" protein. Neurofibromatosis alters or weakens this protein, rapid, radical growth of cells is allowed all over the body, especially around the nervous system. This leads to the normal symptoms for neurofibromatosis - clumpings of these tumors, called neurofibromas and schwannomas.
*Less is known about the NF-2 linked gene. However, it is on band 22q1 and also codes for a protein, most likely one similar to NF-1's.


==How NF Can Affect You==
=== Functions: Sensing (S) / Intuition (N) and Thinking (T) / Feeling (F) ===
People with Neurofibromatosis can be affected in many different ways.
Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions:
* There is a high incidence of learning disabilities in people with NF. It is believed that at least 50% of people with NF have learning disabilities of some type.
* The two ''Perceiving'' functions, Sensing and iNtuition (thus spelled in Myers-Briggs jargon to distinguish it from Introversion)
* increased chances of development of [[petit mal epilepsy]] (a Partial absence seizure disorder)
* The two ''Judging'' functions, Thinking and Feeling
*The tumors that occur can grow anywhere a nerve is present. This means that:
**They can grow in places that are very visible to people that a patient may encounter on the street.
**The tumors can also grow in places that can cause other medical issues that may require them to be removed for the patient's safety.
*Affected individuals may need multiple surgeries, depending on where the tumors are located.


==Treatment==
According to the Myers-Briggs typology model, each person uses one of these four functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances.
There is no cure for the disease itself. Instead, people with neurofibromatosis are followed by a team of specialists to manage symptoms or complications. Surgery may be needed when the tumors compress organs or other structures. Less than 10% people with neurofibromatosis develop cancerous growths; in these cases, chemotherapy can be tried.<ref name="JAMApatient">[http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300/3/352 Neurofibromatosis]. [[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] patient page, Vol. 300 No. 3, July 16, 2008.</ref>


==History==
''' [[Sensing]]''' and '''[[Intuition (knowledge)|iNtuition]]''' are the information-gathering (Perceiving) functions. They describe how new information is understood and interpreted. Individuals who prefer ''Sensing'' are more likely to trust information that is in the present, tangible and concrete: that is, information that can be understood by the five senses. They tend to distrust hunches that seem to come out of nowhere. They prefer to look for details and facts. For them, the meaning is in the data. On the other hand, those who prefer ''iNtuition'' tend to trust information that is more abstract or theoretical, that can be associated with other information (either remembered or discovered by seeking a wider context or pattern). They may be more interested in future possibilities. They tend to trust those flashes of insight that seem to bubble up from the unconscious mind. The meaning is in how the data relates to the pattern or theory.
Neurofibromatosis was discovered in 1882 by the German pathologist [[Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen]]. He wrote on it and published it in ''Hämochromatose, ''Tageblatt der Naturforschenden Versammlung''.<ref>{{WhoNamedIt|doctor|1174}}</ref>


[[Joseph Merrick]], the [[The Elephant Man (film)|Elephant Man]], was once considered to have been afflicted with either [[elephantiasis]] or neurofibromatosis type I. However, it is now generally believed that Merrick suffered from the very rare [[Proteus syndrome]]. This however has given rise to the common misconception that Neurofibromatosis and "Elephant Man Disease" are one and the same.
'''[[Thinking]]''' and '''[[Feeling]]''' are the [[decision-making]] (Judging) functions. The Thinking and Feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions (Sensing or iNtuition). Those who prefer ''Thinking'' tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer ''Feeling'' tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved.


==Related disorders==
As noted already, people with a Thinking preference do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, 'think better' than their Feeling counterparts; the opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the MBTI assessment is a measure of preference, not ability). Similarly, those with a Feeling preference do not necessarily have 'better' emotional reactions than their Thinking counterparts.
Neurofibromatosis is considered a member of the ''[[neurocutaneous syndrome]]s'' (''phakomatoses''). In addition to the types of neurofibromatosis, the phakomatoses also include [[tuberous sclerosis]], [[Sturge-Weber syndrome]] and [[von Hippel-Lindau disease]]. This grouping is an artifact of an earlier time in medicine, before the distinct genetic basis of each of these diseases was understood.


==Neurofibromatosis in Pop Culture==
==== Dominant Function ====
In the television series ''[[Dallas (TV series)| Dallas]]'', the inherited neurofibromatosis of the Barnes family is a driving plot device, although the portrayal of the condition does leave something to be desired in terms of scientific fact.
Although people use all four cognitive functions, one function is generally used in a more conscious and confident way. This dominant function is supported by the secondary (auxiliary) function, and to a lesser degree the tertiary function. The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Myers called this inferior function the ''shadow''.<ref name=Myers />{{rp|84}}


The disease is also a pivotal plot element in the Icelandic film [[Jar City (film)|Mýrin]] (Jar City) and [[Tainted Blood]], the novel on which it was based.
The four functions operate in conjunction with the attitudes (Extraversion and Introversion). Each function is used in either an extraverted or introverted way. A person whose dominant function is extraverted intuition, for example, uses intuition very differently from someone whose dominant function is introverted intuition.


[[Gillian Anderson]], who played Scully on the [[X-Files]], is a spokesperson and helps in the raising of money for neurofibromatosis, because her brother suffers from the disease.
=== Lifestyle: Judgment (J) / Perception (P) ===
Myers and Briggs added another dimension to Jung's typological model by identifying that people also have a preference for using either the '''Judging''' function (Thinking or Feeling) or their '''Perceiving''' function (Sensing or iNtuition) when relating to the outside world (extraversion).


==Notable Cases==
Myers and Briggs taught that types with a preference for ''Judging'' show the world their preferred Judging function (Thinking or Feeling). So TJ types tend to appear to the world as logical, and FJ types as empathetic. According to Myers,<ref name=Myers />{{rp|75}} Judging types prefer to "have matters settled." Those types ending in P show the world their preferred ''Perceiving'' function (Sensing or iNtuition). So SP types tend to appear to the world as concrete and NP types as abstract. According to Myers,<ref name=Myers />{{rp|75}} Perceiving types prefer to "keep decisions open."
In November 2006, there was an hour-long documentary on the British television network Channel 4 about [[Facing the World]], an organization that helps children with severe facial disfigurements in developing countries. One of the children featured on the documentary was Arianto, an Indonesian boy who suffered from a severe form of neurofibroma resulting in hemifacial giganticism.


In January 2008, 32-year-old [[Huang Chuncai]] of China underwent a second operation to remove another 9.9 lb (4.5 kg) of tumor from his face. A previous operation removed 33 pounds (15 kg) from what was originally a 55.7 lb (23 kg) tumor. <ref name="titleABC News: 50-Pound Face Tumor: One Mans Nightmare">{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=4116455&page=1 |title=ABC News: 50-Pound Face Tumor: One Man's Nightmare |accessdate=2008-01-23 |format= |work=}}</ref> <ref>Radford, S. (2008-01-11). ''Chinese man has surgery for 10 kg face tumour''. Retrieved on 2008-01-29 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/01/09/whuang109.xml.</ref>
For Extraverts, the J or P indicates their ''dominant'' function; for Introverts, the J or P indicates their ''auxiliary'' function. Introverts tend to show their dominant function outwardly only in matters "important to their inner worlds".<ref name=Myers />{{rp|13}} For example:


In March 2008 the treatment of 30-year-old neurofibromatosis victim Pascal Coler of France ended after having received what his doctors call the world's first successful full face transplant.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=4511813&page=1 |title=World's First Full Face Transplant Hailed |date=[[2008-03-25]] |accessdate=2008-03-25 |last=Watt |first=Nick |year=2008 |publisher=abcnews.go.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/23/wface123.xml |title=Man has first full-face transplant |date=[[2008-03-25]] |accessdate=2008-03-25 |last=Franklin |first=Katie |year=2008 |publisher=telegraph.co.uk}}</ref>
Because ENTJ types are Extraverts, the J indicates that their ''dominant'' function is their preferred Judging function (Extraverted Thinking). ENTJ types introvert their auxiliary Perceiving function (Introverted iNtuition). The tertiary function is Sensing and the inferior function is Introverted Feeling.

Because INTJ types are Introverts, the J indicates that their ''auxiliary'' function is their preferred Judging function (Extraverted Thinking). INTJ types introvert their dominant Perceiving function (Introverted iNtuition). The tertiary function is Feeling, and the inferior function is Extraverted Sensing.

=== Whole type ===
The expression of a person's psychological type is more than the sum of the four individual preferences, because of the way in which the preferences interact through ''type dynamics'' and ''type development'' (see below). Descriptions of each type can be found on the [http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/the-16-mbti-types.asp Myers & Briggs Foundation] website. In-depth descriptions of each type, including statistics, can be found in ''The MBTI Manual'' (op cit).

==Historical development==
Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in 1917, developing a four-type framework: Social, Thoughtful, Executive, and Spontaneous. After the English translation of Jung's ''Psychological Types'' was published in 1923 (having first been published in German in 1921), she recognized that Jung's theory was similar to, yet went far beyond, her own.<ref name=Myers />{{rp|22}} Katharine Briggs' first publications were two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal ''New Republic'' in 1926 (''Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box'') and 1928 (''Up From Barbarism'').

Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel ''Murder Yet to Come'' in 1929 using typological ideas. She added to her mother's typological research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In 1942, the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator" was created, and the ''Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook'' was published in 1944. The indicator changed its name to the modern form (''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator'') in 1956.<ref>Geyer, Peter (1998) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/dates.html ''Some Significant Dates'']. Retrieved [[December 5]], [[2005]].<!-- This is a bad reference, get rid of it.--></ref><ref>{{cite web| date=2003| url=http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm | title=Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992 | publisher=University of Florida George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL.| access-date=December 5, 2005}}</ref>

===Differences from Jung===

'''Judging vs. Perceiving'''<br>
The most notable addition of Myers and Briggs to Jung's original thought is their concept that a given type's fourth letter (J or P) is determined by how that type interacts with the '''external world''', rather than by the type's '''dominant''' function. The difference becomes evident when assessing the cognitive functions of Introverts. <ref name=Myers/>{{rp|21-22}}

To Jung, a type with dominant Introverted Thinking, for example, would be considered ''rational'' (Judging) because the decision-making function is dominant. To Myers, however, that same type would be ''irrational'' (Perceiving) because the individual uses an information-gathering function (either Extraverted iNtuition or Extraverted Sensing) when interacting with the outer world.

'''Orientation of the tertiary function'''<br>
According to Jung, if the dominant cognitive function is introverted, the other functions are extraverted, and vice versa. However, many MBTI practitioners hold that the tertiary function is oriented in the same direction as the dominant function.<ref name=TypeLogic>{{cite web|url=http://www.typelogic.com/fa.html|title=TypeLogic|accessdate=2008-09-14}}</ref> Using the INTP type as an example, the orientation would be as follows:
* Dominant Introverted Thinking
* Auxiliary Extraverted iNtuition
* Tertiary Introverted Sensing
* Inferior Extraverted Feeling

From a theoretical perspective, noted psychologist H.J. Eysenck calls the MBTI a moderately successful quantification of Jung's original principles as outlined in ''Psychological Types''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eysenck|first=H.J.|title=Genius: The Natural History of Creativity|edition=1995|pages=page 110}}</ref>

==Applications of the MBTI==
The indicator is frequently used in the areas of [[Career Counseling|career counseling]], [[pedagogy]], [[group dynamics]], employee training, [[marketing]], [[leadership|leadership training]], [[life coaching]], [[executive coaching]], [[marriage counseling]], [[Workers' compensation]] claims and [[personal development]].

==Format and administration of the MBTI==
The current North American English version of the MBTI Step I includes 93 forced-choice questions (there are 88 in the European English version). ''Forced-choice'' means that the individual has to choose only one of two possible answers to each question. The choices are a mixture of word pairs and short statements. Choices are not literal opposites but chosen to reflect opposite preferences on the same dichotomy. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose.

Using [[psychometrics|psychometric]] techniques, such as [[item response theory]], the MBTI will then be scored and will attempt to identify the preference, and clarity of preference, in each dichotomy. After taking the MBTI, participants are usually asked to complete a ''Best Fit'' exercise (see above) and then given a readout of their Reported Type, which will usually include a bar graph and number to show how clear they were about each preference when they completed the questionnaire.

During the early development of the MBTI thousands of items were used. Most were eventually discarded because they did not have high ''midpoint discrimination'', meaning the results of that one item did not, on average, move an individual score ''away'' from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the MBTI to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as other instruments with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The MBTI requires five points one way or another to indicate a clear preference.

===Additional formats===

Isabel Myers had noted that people of any given type shared differences as well as similarities. At the time of her death, she was developing a more in-depth method of measuring how people express and experience their individual type pattern. This tool is called the [[MBTI Step II]].

A '''Step III''' is also being developed in a joint project involving the following organizations: CPP, the publisher of the whole family of MBTI works; CAPT (Center for Applications of Psychological Type), which holds all of Myers' and McCaulley's original work; and the MBTI Trust, headed by Katharine and Peter Myers. Step III will further address the use of perception and judgment by respondents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capt.org/research/mbti-step3.htm |title=CAPT Step III|accessdate=2008-09-14}}</ref>

In addition, the '''Type Differentiation Indicator (TDI)''' (Saunders, 1989) is a scoring system for the longer MBTI, '''Form J''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/BessHarveySwartzSIOP2003.pdf |title="Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator"|accessdate=2008-09-14}}</ref> which includes the 20 subscales above, plus a '''Comfort-Discomfort''' factor (which purportedly corresponds to the missing factor of Neuroticism). This factor includes seven additional scales to indicate a sense of overall comfort and confidence versus discomfort and anxiety: guarded-optimistic, defiant-compliant, carefree-worried, decisive-ambivalent, intrepid-inhibited, leader-follower, and proactive-distractible. Also included is a composite of these called "strain." Each of these comfort-discomfort subscales also loads onto one of the four type dimensions, for example, proactive-distractible is also a judging-perceiving subscale. There are also scales for type-scale consistency and comfort-scale consistency. Reliability of 23 of the 27 TDI subscales is greater than .50, "an acceptable result given the brevity of the subscales" (Saunders, 1989).

==Precepts and ethics==
The following precepts are generally used in the ethical administration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:

'''Type not trait:''' The MBTI sorts for type; it does not indicate the strength of ability. The questionnaire allows the clarity of a preference to be ascertained (Bill ''clearly'' prefers introversion), but not the strength of preference (Jane ''strongly'' prefers extraversion) or degree of aptitude (Harry is ''good'' at thinking). In this sense, it differs from trait-based tools such as [[16PF]]. Type preferences are polar opposites: a precept of MBTI is that you fundamentally prefer one thing over the other, not a bit of both.

'''Own best judge:''' Individuals are considered the best judge of their own type. While the MBTI questionnaire provides a ''Reported Type'', this is considered only an indication of their probable overall Type. A ''Best Fit Process'' is usually used to allow the individual to develop their understanding of the four dichotomies, form their own hypothesis as to their overall Type and compare this against the Reported Type. In more than 20% of cases, the hypothesis and the reported type differ in one or more dichotomies: the clarity of each preference, any potential for bias in the report and, often, a comparison of two or more whole Types may then be used to help the subject determine his or her own Best Fit.

'''No right or wrong:''' No preference or total type is considered 'better' or 'worse' than another - they are all, as in the title of the book on this subject by Isabel Briggs Myers, ''[[Gifts Differing]]''.

'''Voluntary:''' It is considered unethical to compel anyone to take the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. It should always be taken voluntarily.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myersbriggs.org/myers-and-briggs-foundation/ethical-use-of-the-mbti-instrument/ethics-for-administering.asp|title=Myers-Briggs.org Ethical Guidelines|accessdate=2008-06-21}}</ref>

'''Confidentiality:''' The result of the MBTI Reported and Best Fit type are confidential between the individual and administrator and, ethically, not for disclosure without permission.

'''Not for selection:''' Because the MBTI measures preferences instead of aptitude - and because there are no right or wrong types - it is not considered a proper instrument for purposes of employment selection. Many professions contain highly competent individuals of different types with complementary preferences.

'''Importance of proper feedback:''' Individuals should always be given detailed feedback from a trained administrator and an opportunity to undertake a Best Fit exercise to check against their Reported Type. Feedback can be given in person or, where this is not practical, by telephone or electronically.

==Type dynamics and development==
{| class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 20%;"
|-
| colspan="4" | '''The Sixteen Types'''
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ISTJ]]
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ISFJ]]
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[INFJ]]
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[INTJ]]
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ISTP (personality type)|ISTP]]
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ISFP]]
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[INFP]]
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[INTP]]
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ESTP]]
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ESFP]]
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[ENFP]]
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[ENTP]]
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ESTJ]]
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ESFJ]]
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[ENFJ]]
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[ENTJ]]
|-
| colspan="4" | The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers (an INFP).
|}
{| class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 20%;"
|-
| colspan="4" | '''U.S.A. Population Breakdown'''
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ISTJ]]<br /><small>11.6%</small>
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ISFJ]]<br /><small>13.8%</small>
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[INFJ]]<br /><small>1.5%</small>
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[INTJ]]<br /><small>2.1%</small>
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ISTP (personality type)|ISTP]]<br /><small>5.4%</small>
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ISFP]]<br /><small>8.8%</small>
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[INFP]]<br /><small>4.3%</small>
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[INTP]]<br /><small>3.3%</small>
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ESTP]]<br /><small>4.3%</small>
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ESFP]]<br /><small>8.5%</small>
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[ENFP]]<br /><small>8.1%</small>
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[ENTP]]<br /><small>3.2%</small>
|-
| style="background: #FFDDFE" | [[ESTJ]]<br /><small>8.7%</small>
| style="background: #EDDDBB" | [[ESFJ]]<br /><small>12.3%</small>
| style="background: #DDDDFF" | [[ENFJ]]<br /><small>2.4%</small>
| style="background: #DDFFDE" | [[ENTJ]]<br /><small>1.8%</small>
|-
| colspan="4" | Estimated percentages of the 16 types in the American population using [[inferential statistics]]. The figures above are from a random sampling of 3009 people culled from a total pool of 16,000 using the 1998 MBTI Form M. The individuals whose form results were used in this random sampling were not provided with the data to verify or question their accuracy. But these numbers do provide a working base on which to build further understanding and development of the model as extrapolated to larger populations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infj.org/archive/typestats.html|title=Dolphin Cove|accessdate=2008-06-25}}</ref>
It should be noted that some types are more likely to take the MBTI than others (such as the INFP) and raw statistics prove unreliable because of this.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
|}

The interaction of two, three, or four preferences is known as '''type dynamics'''. Myers and Briggs asserted that for each of the 16 four-preference types, one function is the most '''dominant''' and is likely to be evident earliest in life. A secondary or '''auxiliary''' function typically becomes more evident (''differentiated'') during teenage years and provides balance to the dominant. In normal development individuals tend to become more fluent with a third, '''tertiary''' function during mid life, while the fourth, '''inferior''' function remains least consciously developed. The inferior funciton is often considered to be more associated with the unconscious, being most evident in situations such as high stress (sometimes referred to as being ''in the grip'' of the inferior function).

The sequence of differentiation of dominant, auxiliary and tertiary functions through life is termed '''type development'''. This is an idealized sequence which may be disrupted by major life events; for example, the death or serious illness of a parent during childhood is considered commonly to halt full development of the auxiliary function. {{Fact|date=March 2008}}

The dynamic sequence of functions and their attitudes can be determined in the following way:

* The overall ''lifestyle preference'' (J-P) determines whether the judging (T-F) or perceiving (S-N) preference is most evident in the outside world, i.e. which function has an extraverted attitude

* For those with an overall preference for Extraversion, the function with the ''extraverted attitude'' will be the dominant function. For example, for an ESTJ type the dominant function is the judging function, Thinking, and this is experienced with an extraverted attitude. This is notated as a dominant Te. For an ESTP, the dominant function is the perceiving function, Sensing, notated as a dominant Se.

* The ''Auxiliary'' function for Extraverts is the secondary preference of the Judging or Perceiving functions, and it is experienced with an introverted attitude: for example, the auxiliary function for ESTJ is Introverted Sensing (Si) and the auxiliary for ESTP is Introverted Thinking (Si).

* For those with an overall preference for Introversion, the function with the extraverted attitude is the ''auxiliary''; the dominant is the other function in the main four letter preference. So the dominant function for ISTJ is Introverted Sensing (Si) with the auxiliary (supporting) function being Extraverted Thinking (Te).

* The ''Tertiary'' function is the opposite preference from the Auxiliary. For example, if the Auxiliary is Thinking then the Tertiary would be Feeling. The attitude of the Tertiary is the subject of some debate and therefore is not normally indicated, i.e. if the Auxiliary was Te then the Tertiary would be F (not Fe or Fi)

* The ''Inferior'' function is the opposite preference and attitude from the Dominant, so for an ESTJ with dominant Te the Inferior would be Fi.

Note that for Extraverts, the ''dominant'' function is the one most evident in the external world. For Introverts, however, it is the ''auxiliary'' function that is most evident externally, as their dominant function relates to the interior world.

A couple of examples of whole types will help to clarify this further.

Taking the '''ESTJ''' example above:

* Extraverted function is a Judging function (T-F) because of the overall J preference
* Extraverted function is dominant because of overall E preference
* Dominant function is therefore extraverted Thinking (Te)
* Auxiliary function will be the less dominant Perceiving function - introverted Sensing (Si)
* Tertiary function is the opposite preference to the Auxiliary - iNtuition (N)
* Inferior function is the opposite preference and attitude to the Dominant - introverted Feeling (Fi)

The dynamics of the ESTJ are found in the primary combination of Extraverted Thinking being their dominant function and Introverted Sensing being their auxiliary function: The dominant tendency to order the ESTJ's environment, to set clear boundaries, to clarify roles and timetables and to direct the activities around them is supported by the facility for using past experience in an ordered and systematic way to help organize themselves and others. ESTJs, for instance, may enjoy planning trips for groups of people to achieve some goal or to perform some culturally uplifting function. Because of their ease of directing others and their facility of managing their own time, they will engage all the resources at their disposal to achieve their goals. However, under prolonged stress or sudden trauma, ESTJs may overuse their Extraverted Thinking function and fall into "the grip" of their inferior function, Introverted Feeling. Though the ESTJ can seem insensitive to the feelings of others in their normal activities, under tremendous stress, they can suddenly express feelings of being unappreciated or wounded by insensitivity.

Looking at the diametrically opposite four-letter Type, '''INFP''':

* Extraverted function is a Perceiving function (S-N) because of the P preference
* Introverted function is dominant because of the I preference
* Dominant function is therefore Introverted Feeling (Fi)
* Auxiliary function is Extraverted iNtuition (Ne)
* Tertiary function is the opposite of the Auxiliary, Sensing (S)
* Inferior function is the opposite of the Dominant, Extraverted Thinking (Te)

The dynamics of the INFP rest on the fundamental correspondence of Introverted Feeling and Extraverted iNtuition. The dominant tendency of the INFP is toward building a rich internal framework of values and toward championing human rights. They often devote themselves behind the scenes to causes such as civil rights or saving the environment. Since they tend to avoid the limelight, postpone decisions, and maintain a reserved posture, they are rarely found in executive-director type positions of the organizations that serve those causes. Normally, the INFP dislikes being "in charge" of things. When not under stress, the INFP radiates a pleasant and sympathetic demeanor; but under extreme stress, they can suddenly become rigid and directive, exerting their extraverted Thinking erratically.

Every type - and its opposite - is the expression of these interactions, which give each type its unique "signature" that can be recognized.

==Expansion of the Myers-Briggs theory==
'''Brain Halves'''<br>
Some have theorized that the MBTI functions may correlate to the [[Lateralization of brain function]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bentz Thomson|first=Lenore|title=Personality Type: An Owner's Manual|publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc.|date=October 1998|series=Jung on the Hudson Books|pages=415|isbn=9780877739876}}</ref> Others claim, however, that this proposed correlation has no scientific basis. {{Fact|date=September 2008}}

==Correlations to other instruments ==
'''Keirsey Temperaments'''<br>
[[David W. Keirsey]] mapped four 'Temperaments' to the existing Myers-Briggs system groupings SP, SJ, NF and NT; this often results in confusion of the two theories. However, the [[Keirsey Temperament Sorter]] is not directly associated with the official Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

{{MBTI Archetypes}}

'''Big Five'''<br>
McCrae and Costa<ref name = McCrae/> present [[correlation]]s between the MBTI scales and the [[Big five personality traits|Big Five]] personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests. The five personality characteristics are extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (or neuroticism). The following study is based on the results from 267 men followed as part of a longitudinal study of aging. (Similar results were obtained with 201 women.)

{{MBTI study}}

These data suggest that four of the MBTI scales are related to the [[Big five personality traits|Big Five]] personality traits. These correlations show that E-I and S-N are strongly related to extraversion and openness respectively, while T-F and J-P are moderately related to agreeableness and conscientiousness respectively. The emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent from the original MBTI (though the TDI, discussed above, has addressed that dimension).

These findings led McCrae and Costa, the formulators of the Five Factor Theory,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/bigfive.html#b5vffm|title=University of Oregon: "Measuring the Big Five Personality Factors"|accessdate=2008-08-08}}</ref> to conclude, "correlational analyses showed that the four MBTI indices did measure aspects of four of the five major dimensions of normal personality. The five-factor model provides an alternative basis for interpreting MBTI findings within a broader, more commonly shared conceptual framework." However, "there was no support for the view that the MBTI measures truly dichotomous preferences or qualitatively distinct types, instead, the instrument measures four relatively independent dimensions."

==Study of scoring consistency==
Split-half [[reliability (psychometric)|reliability]] of the MBTI scales is good, although test-retest reliability is sensitive to the time between tests. However, because the MBTI [[dichotomy|dichotomies]] scores in the middle of the distribution, type allocations are less reliable. Within each scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorizations remain the same when retested within nine months, and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% remain the same after nine months.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Harvey, R J | date=1996| title=Reliability and Validity, in MBTI Applications A.L. Hammer, Editor| publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA }} p. 5- 29.</ref> For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI instrument) these scores are higher (see MBTI Manual, p. 163, Table 8.6).

==Criticism==
===Reliability===
Some researchers have interpreted the [[reliability (statistics)|reliability]] of the test as being low, with test takers who retake the test often being assigned a different type. According to some studies, 39–76% of those tested fall into different types upon retesting some weeks or years later.<ref name=Pittenger/><ref name=Matthews/> About 50% of people tested within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% remain the same after nine months.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Harvey, R J | date=1996| title=Reliability and Validity, in MBTI Applications A.L. Hammer, Editor| publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA }} p. 5- 29.</ref> When people are asked to compare their preferred type to that assigned by the MBTI, only half of people pick the same profile.<ref name=Carskadon>{{cite journal| author=Carskadon, TG & Cook, DD | date=1982| title=Validity of MBTI descriptions as perceived by recipients unfamiliar with type | journal=Research in Psychological Type | volume=5 | pages=89–94}}</ref> Critics also argue that the MBTI lacks [[falsifiability]], which can cause [[confirmation bias]] in the interpretation of results.

===Validity===
The [[validity (statistics)|statistical validity]] of the MBTI as a [[psychometrics|psychometric]] instrument has been the subject of criticism. Neither Katharine Cook Briggs nor Isabel Briggs Myers were formally educated in psychology, and thus lacked scientific qualifications in the field of psychometric testing.<ref name=Myers/>{{rp|xiii}} Furthermore, [[Jung|Carl Jung]]'s theory of psychological type, which the MBTI attempts to operationalize, is not based on any scientific studies. Jung's methods primarily included [[introspection]] and [[anecdote]], methods largely rejected by the modern field of [[psychology]].<ref name=Carroll>{{cite web | author=Carroll, Robert Todd | date=January 9, 2004 | url=http://skepdic.com/myersb.html |title= Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-The Skeptic's Dictionary| access-date=January 8, 2004}}</ref>

It has been estimated that between a third and a half of the published material on the MBTI has been produced for conferences of the Center for the Application of Psychological Type (which provides training in the MBTI) or as papers in the Journal of Psychological Type (which is edited by Myers-Briggs advocates).<ref name = LSRC>{{cite web | author=Coffield F, Moseley D, Hall E, Ecclestone K | date=2004 | url=http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf | title=Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review | publisher=Learning and Skills Research Centre}}</ref> It has been argued that this reflects a lack of critical scrutiny.<ref name=LSRC/><ref name=Pittenger/>

Unlike other personality measures, such as the [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] or the [[Personality Assessment Inventory]], the MBTI lacks validity scales to assess response styles such as exaggeration or impression management.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} The MBTI has not been validated by [[Blind experiment#Double-blind trials|double-blind tests]], in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a scientific assessment.{{Clarifyme|date=September 2008}} Validity has also been questioned on theoretical grounds.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}

Some sources report that the proportion of different personality types varies by choice of career or course of study.<ref name=Manual/> <ref name=Myers/>{{rp|40-51}} Other researchers examining the proportions of each type within varying professions found that the proportion of MBTI types within each occupation is close to that within a random sample of the population. <ref name=Pittenger/>

With regard to factor analysis, one study of l29l college-aged students found ''six'' different factors instead of the ''four'' used in the MBTI.<ref name=Sipps-1985>Sipps, G.J., R.A. Alexander, and L. Friedt. "Item Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator." ''Educational and Psychological Measurement'', Vol. 45, No. 4 (1985), pp. 789-796.</ref> In other studies, researchers found that the JP and the SN scales correlate with one another.<ref name=McCrae/>

===Statistical structure===
The instrument's dichotomous scoring of dimensions has also been subject to criticism. For example, some researchers expected that scores would show a [[bimodal distribution]] with peaks near the ends of the scales, but found that scores on the individual subscales were actually distributed in a centrally peaked manner similar to a [[normal distribution]]. A cut-off exists at the center of the subscale such that a score on one side is classified as one type, and a score on the other side as the opposite type. This fails to support the concept of ''type'': the norm is for people to lie near the middle of the subscale.<ref name=McCrae/><ref name=Stricker/><ref name=Pittenger>{{cite journal | last = Pittenger | first = David J. | title = Measuring the MBTI. . .And Coming Up Short. | journal = Journal of Career Planning and Employment | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–52 | date = November 1993 | url = http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name=harvey>{{cite conference | author=Bess, T.L. & Harvey, R.J. |date=2001| url=http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/SIOPhandoutBess-HarveyMBTI2001.pdf| contribution=Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact?| title=The Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego 2001}}</ref><ref name= Matthews>{{cite journal | author=Matthews, P | date=21-05-2004 | url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/328/7450/1244 | title=The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality| journal=bmj.com Rapid Responses }} But see also Clack & Allen's response to Matthews.</ref> Nevertheless, "the absence of bimodal score distributions does not necessarily prove that the 'type'-based approach is incorrect."<ref name=harvey/>

===Utility===
The relevance of the MBTI for career planning has been questioned, with reservations about the relevance of type to job performance or satisfaction, and concerns about the potential misuse of the instrument in labeling individuals.<ref>{{cite book |author= Druckman, D. and R. A. Bjork, Eds. |title= In the Mind’s Eye: Enhancing Human Performance |publisher= National Academy Press |location = Washington, DC |year= 1992 |isbn= 0-309-04747-1}}</ref><ref name=Pittenger/>

===Non-experimental basis of the theory===
The Jungian theory of type introduces a sequence of 4 cognitive functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuition), each having 1 of 2 orientations (extraverted or introverted), for a total of 8 functions. However, neither the Myers-Briggs nor the Jungian model offers a scientific, experimental basis to substantiate the existence, the orientation, or the sequence of these functions.<ref name=Carroll/> (See also [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator#Differences from Jung|Differences from Jung]] above.)

Despite this lack of proof, required by the scientific field of psychology, type descriptions (including vocational guidance) and type relations<ref name=TypeLogic/> are based on these functions.

==Skepticism==
Skeptics criticize the terminology of the MBTI as being so vague as to allow any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the [[Forer effect]], where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them<ref name=Carroll/><ref name=Pittenger/>. However, the descriptions offered for the 16 psychological types are often quite detailed and specific, unlike the "vague and general personality descriptions"<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.skepdic.com/forer.html| title=Forer effect from the Skeptic's Dictionary}}</ref> that characterize the Forer effect. For example, David Keirsey<ref name=Keirsey>{{cite book |author=Keirsey, David |title=Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence |publisher=Prometheus Nemesis Book Company |location=Del Mar, CA |year=1998 |pages= |isbn=1-885705-02-6 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> examined how the four temperaments differ in terms of language use, intellectual orientation, educational and vocational interests, social orientation, self image, personal values, social roles and even characteristic hand gestures. Keirsey went on to describe the hierarchy of intellectual roles played by each of the four types within each temperament, resulting in sixteen unique descriptions which, unlike the Forer effect, rely not on the universal traits that make human beings the same, but on the specific traits that make human beings different from one another.


==See also==
==See also==
{{Wikinews|Interview with Reggie Bibbs on his life with neurofibromatosis}}
* [[Big five personality traits]]
* [[DISC assessment]]
*[[Neurofibroma]]
* [[Enneagram of Personality]]
* [[False dilemma]]
* [[Family therapy]]
* [[Holland Codes]]
* [[Keirsey Temperament Sorter]]
* [[Socionics]]
* [[List of tests]]
* [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] (MMPI)
* [[Personality psychology]]
* [[Psychometrics]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References and further reading==
*Hunsley, J.; Lee, C.M.; and Wood, J.M. (2004). Controversial and questionable assessment techniques. ''Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology'', Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Lynn SJ (eds.). Guilford, ISBN 1-59385-070-0
*Bess, T.L.; and Harvey, R.J. (2001, April). [http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/SIOPhandoutBess-HarveyMBTI2001.pdf ''Bimodal score distributions and the MBTI: Fact or artifact?''] Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego.
*Bess, T.L.; Harvey, R.J.; and Swartz, D. (2003). [http://harvey.psyc.vt.edu/Documents/BessHarveySwartzSIOP2003.pdf ''Hierarchical Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator''] Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando.
*Bourne, Dana (2005). [http://www.webdotgal.com/html/m-b.html ''Personality Types and the Transgender Community'']. Retrieved November 14, 2005
*Falt, Jack. [http://www.trytel.com/~jfalt/topics.html ''Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author'']. Retrieved December 20, 2004
*Georgia State University. [http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html ''GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles'']. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
*Jung, Carl Gustav (1965). ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections.'' Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207
*Jung, C. G. (1971). ''Psychological types (Collected works of C. G. Jung, volume 6).'' (3rd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. First appeared in German in 1921. ISBN 0-691-09770-4
*Killian, Shaun (2007). [http://www.mbtionline.net.au/page4.htm ''More About the MBTI, personality and its impact on your effectiveness''], MBTI Online.
*Matthews, Paul (2004). [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/328/7450/1244 ''The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality'']. bmj.com Rapid Responses. Retrieved February 9, 2005
*Myers, Isabel Briggs (1980). ''[[Gifts Differing]]: Understanding Personality Type.'' Davies-Black Publishing; Reprint edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 0-89106-074-X
*Pearman, R.; Lombardo, M.; and Eichinger, R.(2005). ''YOU: Being More Effective In Your MBTI Type.'' Minn.:Lominger International, Inc.
*Pearman, R.; and Albritton, S. (1996). ''I'm Not Crazy, I'm Just Not You: The Real Meaning of the Sixteen Personality Types.'' Mountain View, Ca: Davies-Black Publishing.
*Personality Plus. [http://www.gladwell.com/pdf/personality.pdf ''Employers love personality tests. But what do they really reveal?'']
*Saunders, D. (1989). ''Type Differentiation Indicator Manual: A scoring system for Form J of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator''. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
*Skeptics Dictionary. "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator" [http://skepdic.com/myersb.html]
*Virginia Tech. [http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jte-v7n1/wicklein.jte-v7n1.html ''The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers'']. Retrieved December 20, 2004
* {{cite journal
| author = Thomas G. Long
| year = 1992
| month = October
| title = Myers-Briggs and other Modern Astrologies
| journal = Theology Today
| volume = 49
| issue = 3
| pages = 291–95
}}


==External links==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikiquotepar|Psychological Type}}
<!-- Before adding to this list, refer to WP:EL and make sure the link complies. Otherwise, it will be deleted. -->


== External links ==
'''Official websites'''
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/neurofibro.htm Information page] from the [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] (part of the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States]]) -- this Wikipedia article is based largely on this NINDS information page
* [http://www.cpp.com/products/mbti/index.asp CPP, Publisher of the MBTI]
*[http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/acoustic_neuroma.asp Vestibular Schwannoma (Acoustic Neuroma) and Neurofibromatosis] at [[National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders]]
* [http://www.myersbriggs.org The Myers & Briggs Foundation]
* {{DMOZ|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Neurological_Disorders/Peripheral_Nervous_System/Neurofibromatosis/}}
* [http://www.aptinternational.org The Association for Psychological Type International]
'''Criticism of the MBTI'''
* [http://www.skepdic.com/myersb.html Information from the Skeptic's Dictionary]
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMWebsite/hrm/articles/develop/mbti.pdf Measuring the MBTI and Coming Up Short]
'''The 16 personality types'''
* [http://www.typelogic.com/fa.html Functional analysis of the 16 types at TypeLogic.com]
* [http://www.personalitypage.com/portraits.html Portraits of the 16 types at PersonalityPage.com]
'''Free online Jungian typology tests'''
* [http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp HumanMetrics]
* [http://www.41q.com/ 41 Questions]
* [http://spt.skeletus.com/eng/ Skeletus Personality Test]


{{Phakomatoses}}
{{Jungian psychology}}
{{Nervous tissue tumors}}


[[Category:Personality]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Jungian psychology]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Personality typologies]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]
[[Category:MBTI types]]
[[Category:Personality tests]]


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[[de:Myers-Briggs-Typindikator]]
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[[es:Indicador Myers-Briggs]]
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[[ko:마이어스-브릭스 유형 지표]]
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Revision as of 20:10, 13 October 2008

Neurofibromatosis
SpecialtyMedical genetics, neurology Edit this on Wikidata

Neurofibromatosis is a genetically-transmitted disease in which nerve tissue grows tumors (e.g. neurofibromas) that may be harmless or may cause serious damage by compressing nerves and other tissues. The disorder affects all neural crest cells (Schwann cells, melanocytes, endoneurial fibroblasts). Cellular elements from these cell types proliferate excessively throughout the body forming tumors and the melanocytes function abnormally resulting in disordered skin pigmentation.The tumors may cause bumps under the skin, colored spots, skeletal problems, pressure on spinal nerve roots, and other neurological problems. [1]

Neurofibromatosis is autosomal dominant, which means that it is autosomal (it affects males and females equally often) and dominant (only one copy of the affected gene is needed to get the disorder). Therefore, if only one parent has neurofibromatosis, his or her children have a 50% chance of developing the condition as well. Disease severity in affected individuals, however, can vary (this is called variable expressivity). Moreover, in around half of cases there is no other affected family member because a new mutation has occurred.

Types

Diagnostic Criteria

Neurofibromatosis type 1

Neurofibromatosis type 1 - mutation of neurofibromin chromosome 17q11.2. The diagnosis of NF1 is made if any two of the following seven criteria are met:

  • Two or more neurofibromas on the skin or under the skin or one plexiform neurofibroma (a large cluster of tumors involving multiple nerves); Neurofibromas are the subcutaneous lumps that are characteristic of the disease and increase in number with age.
  • Freckling of the groin or the axilla (arm pit).
  • Café au lait spots (pigmented birthmarks). Six or more measuring 5 mm in greatest diameter in prepubertal individuals and over 15 mm in greatest diameter in postpubertal individuals
  • Skeletal abnormalities, such as sphenoid dysplasia or thinning of the cortex of the long bones of the body (i.e. bones of the leg, potentially resulting in bowing of the legs)
  • Lisch nodules (hamartomas of iris), freckling in the iris.
  • Tumors on the optic nerve, also known as an optic glioma
  • A first-degree relative with a diagnosis of NF1


plexiform neurofibroma
Patient with multiple small cutaneous neurofibromas and a 'café au lait spot' (bottom of photo, to the right of centre). A biopsy has been taken of one of the lesions

Neurofibromatosis type 2

Neurofibromatosis type 2 - mutation of merlin chromosome 22q12

Schwannomatosis

Schwannomatosis - gene involved has yet to be identified

  1. Multiple Schwannomas occur.
  2. The Schwannomas develop on cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves.
  3. Chronic pain, and sometimes numbness, tingling and weakness.
  4. About 1/3 of patients have segmental Schwannomatosis, which means that the Schwannomas are limited to a single part of the body, such as an arm, a leg or the spine.
  5. Unlike the other forms of NF, the Schwannomas do not develop on vestibular nerves, and as a result, no loss of hearing is associated with Schwannomatosis.
  6. Patients with Schwannomatosis do not have learning disabilities related to the disease.


One must keep in mind, however, that neurofibromatosis can occur in and affect nearly all of the organ systems, whether that entails simply compressing them (from tumor growth) or in fact altering the organs in some fundamental way. This disparity in the disease is one of many factors that makes it difficult to diagnose, and eventually find a prognosis for.

Genetics and Hereditability

NF-1 and NF-2 may be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, as well as through random mutation.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 is due to mutation on chromosome 17q11.2 , the gene product being Neurofibromin ( a GTPase activating enzyme).[2]

Neurofibromatosis type 2 is due to mutation on chromosome 22q , the gene product is Merlin, a cytoskeletal protein.

Both NF1 and NF2 are autosomal dominant disorders, meaning that only one copy of the mutated gene need be inherited to pass the disorder. A child of a parent with NF1 or NF2 and an unaffected parent will have a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder.

Complicating the question of heritability is the distinction between genotype and phenotype, that is, between the genetics and the actual manifestation of the disorder. In the case of NF1, no clear links between genotype and phenotype have been found, and the severity and specific nature of the symptoms may vary widely among family members with the disorder.[3] In the case of NF2, however, manifestations are similar among family members; a strong genotype-phenotype correlation is believed to exist (ibid).

Both NF1 and NF2 can also appear to be spontaneous mutation, with no family history. These cases account for about one half of neurofibromatosis cases (ibid).

Similar to polydactyly, although NF is a dominant mutation, it is not prevalent in society. Neurofibromatosis-1 is found in approximately 1 in 2,500-3,000 live births (carrier incidence 0.0004, gene frequency 0.0002). NF-2 is less common, having one case in 50,000-120,000 live births.[4]

How It Works

Neurofibromatosis affects humans on a genetic level, meaning that it either destroys, or renders defective a specific gene. NF-1

  • The gene that NF-1 affects is large, on band 17q11.2. It encodes for a protein called neurofibromin, otherwise known as "the tumor suppressor" protein. Neurofibromatosis alters or weakens this protein, rapid, radical growth of cells is allowed all over the body, especially around the nervous system. This leads to the normal symptoms for neurofibromatosis - clumpings of these tumors, called neurofibromas and schwannomas.
  • Less is known about the NF-2 linked gene. However, it is on band 22q1 and also codes for a protein, most likely one similar to NF-1's.

How NF Can Affect You

People with Neurofibromatosis can be affected in many different ways.

  • There is a high incidence of learning disabilities in people with NF. It is believed that at least 50% of people with NF have learning disabilities of some type.
  • increased chances of development of petit mal epilepsy (a Partial absence seizure disorder)
  • The tumors that occur can grow anywhere a nerve is present. This means that:
    • They can grow in places that are very visible to people that a patient may encounter on the street.
    • The tumors can also grow in places that can cause other medical issues that may require them to be removed for the patient's safety.
  • Affected individuals may need multiple surgeries, depending on where the tumors are located.

Treatment

There is no cure for the disease itself. Instead, people with neurofibromatosis are followed by a team of specialists to manage symptoms or complications. Surgery may be needed when the tumors compress organs or other structures. Less than 10% people with neurofibromatosis develop cancerous growths; in these cases, chemotherapy can be tried.[5]

History

Neurofibromatosis was discovered in 1882 by the German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen. He wrote on it and published it in Hämochromatose, Tageblatt der Naturforschenden Versammlung.[6]

Joseph Merrick, the Elephant Man, was once considered to have been afflicted with either elephantiasis or neurofibromatosis type I. However, it is now generally believed that Merrick suffered from the very rare Proteus syndrome. This however has given rise to the common misconception that Neurofibromatosis and "Elephant Man Disease" are one and the same.

Related disorders

Neurofibromatosis is considered a member of the neurocutaneous syndromes (phakomatoses). In addition to the types of neurofibromatosis, the phakomatoses also include tuberous sclerosis, Sturge-Weber syndrome and von Hippel-Lindau disease. This grouping is an artifact of an earlier time in medicine, before the distinct genetic basis of each of these diseases was understood.

Neurofibromatosis in Pop Culture

In the television series Dallas, the inherited neurofibromatosis of the Barnes family is a driving plot device, although the portrayal of the condition does leave something to be desired in terms of scientific fact.

The disease is also a pivotal plot element in the Icelandic film Mýrin (Jar City) and Tainted Blood, the novel on which it was based.

Gillian Anderson, who played Scully on the X-Files, is a spokesperson and helps in the raising of money for neurofibromatosis, because her brother suffers from the disease.

Notable Cases

In November 2006, there was an hour-long documentary on the British television network Channel 4 about Facing the World, an organization that helps children with severe facial disfigurements in developing countries. One of the children featured on the documentary was Arianto, an Indonesian boy who suffered from a severe form of neurofibroma resulting in hemifacial giganticism.

In January 2008, 32-year-old Huang Chuncai of China underwent a second operation to remove another 9.9 lb (4.5 kg) of tumor from his face. A previous operation removed 33 pounds (15 kg) from what was originally a 55.7 lb (23 kg) tumor. [7] [8]

In March 2008 the treatment of 30-year-old neurofibromatosis victim Pascal Coler of France ended after having received what his doctors call the world's first successful full face transplant.[9][10]

See also

Wikinews has related news:

References

  1. ^ http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec06/ch088/ch088d.html Merck Manual Home Edition, "Neurofibromatosis"
  2. ^ Fauci, et al Harrison's Principle of Internal Medicine 16th Ed. p 2453
  3. ^ Korf, Bruce E. and Allan E. Rubenstein. 2005. Neurofibromatosis: A Handbook for Patients, Families, and Health Care Professionals.
  4. ^ Jennifer R. Kam, Jan. 2007
  5. ^ Neurofibromatosis. JAMA patient page, Vol. 300 No. 3, July 16, 2008.
  6. ^ doctor/1174 at Who Named It?
  7. ^ "ABC News: 50-Pound Face Tumor: One Man's Nightmare". Retrieved 2008-01-23.
  8. ^ Radford, S. (2008-01-11). Chinese man has surgery for 10 kg face tumour. Retrieved on 2008-01-29 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/01/09/whuang109.xml.
  9. ^ Watt, Nick (2008-03-25). "World's First Full Face Transplant Hailed". abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  10. ^ Franklin, Katie (2008-03-25). "Man has first full-face transplant". telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)

External links

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