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'''Polarity in international relations''' is a description of the distribution of power within the international system. It describes the nature of the international system at any given period of time. There are three types of systems, Unipolarity, Bipolarity, and Multipolarity. The type of system is completely dependent on the distribution of power and influence of states in a region or internationally.
{{ActiveDiscuss|date=September 2008}}
{{Infobox Person
|name = William A. Spinks
|image = William A. Spinks passport photo 1924 no sig.png
|image_size = 257
|caption = William A. Spinks in 1924<br /><small>(passport photo from Dept. of State microfilm)</small>
|birth_date = July 11, 1865
|birth_place = [[San Jose, California]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1933|01|15|1865|07|11}}
|death_place = [[Monrovia, California]]
|residence = [[Brooklyn, New York]]; [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]; [[Chicago, Illinois]]; and San Jose, [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Duarte, California|Duarte]] and Monrovia, California
|nationality = {{Flag|United States}}
|ethnicity = [[White people|White]]
|other_names = W. A. Spinks, Billy Spinks
|known_for = Co-invention of [[Cue sports|billiard]] {{Cuegloss|Chalk|chalk}},<br />[[Balkline and straight rail|balkline billiards]] world record,<br />the Spinks [[avocado]] [[cultivar]]
|occupation = Billiards player, inventor,<br />sporting goods manufacturer,<br />[[oil company]] investor/director,<br />farmer/[[Horticulture|horticuluralist]]
|years_active = ca. 1893 &ndash; 1920s
|signature = William A. Spinks signature.png
}}
'''William Alexander Spinks Jr.''' (1865&ndash;1933), known professionally as '''William A. Spinks''' or (in the initialing practice common in his era) '''W. A. Spinks''', and rarely also referred to as '''Billy Spinks'''{{Fact|date=September 2008}}), was an [[United States|American]] professional [[carom billiards]] player in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In addition to being amateur Pacific Coast billiards champion several times,<ref name="APObit" /><ref name="NNObit" /> a world champion contender in more than one [[cue sports]] discipline,<ref name="NYTNote" /> and an exhibition player in Europe,<ref name="Clark">{{Cite journal
|url=http://www.toaster.org/hoskins_tragic.html
|title=The World's Most Tragic Man Is the One Who Never Starts
|last=Clark
|first=Neil M.
|journal=[[The American (magazine)|The American]]
|month=May
|year=1927
|accessdate=February 24, 2007}}; republished in ''Hotwire: The Newsletter of the Toaster Museum Foundation'', vol. 3, no. 3, online edition. The piece is largely an interview of Hoskins. <small>(And there actually is a Toaster Museum, backed by a related foundation. They take the history of toast, and electrical heating in general, quite seriously.)</small></ref> he became the co-inventor (with [[William Hoskins (inventor)|William Hoskins]]) in 1897 of modern [[Cue sport#Chalk|billiard chalk]].<ref name="Clark" /><ref name="Patent578514">{{US patent|0578514}}, March 9, 1897</ref> He was originally (and again in retirement from the billiards circuit) a [[California]]n, but spent much of his professional career in [[Chicago, Illinois]].<ref name="APObit" /><ref name="Clark" /> At his peak, the ''[[New York Times]]'' labeled Spinks "[one] of the most brilliant players among the veterans of the game",<ref name="NYTDemarest2" /> and he still holds the world record for points scored in a row (1,010) using a particular shot type.<ref name="Shamos 1999" /> Aside from his billiards playing career, he founded a [[sporting goods]] manufacturing business, and was both a [[Oil company|petroleum company]] investor and director, and a flower and [[avocado]] farmer and [[Horticulture|horticulturist]], originator of the eponymous Spinks avocado [[cultivar]].


== Unipolarity ==
==As an inventor (1892&ndash;1897)==
{{seealso|Hegemony}}
[[Image:Spinks Billiard Chalk box top ca 1900.jpg|thumb|right|The top of a box of a dozen cubes of Spinks billiard chalk, ca. 1900&ndash;1910. Note the endorsement by World Champion [[Jacob Schaefer Sr.]], often Spinks's opponent as a touring pro.]]


Unipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which there is one state with most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. This if different than [[hegemony]] since a hegemon may not have total control of the sea ports or "commons".
While Spinks was a world-class player, his lasting contribution to [[cue sport]]s was the innovations he brought to the game and the industry resulting from his fascination with the [[abrasive]]s used by players on the leather {{Cuegloss|Cue tip|tips}} of their [[cue stick]]s.


===Examples of Unipolarity===
{{Cuegloss|Chalk|Cue "chalk"}} (used since at least 1807) helps the tip better grip the {{Cuegloss|Cue ball|cue ball}} (very briefly) on a {{Cuegloss|Stroke|stroke}} and prevent {{Cuegloss|Miscue|miscueing}}, as well as permitting the player to impart a great deal more {{Cuegloss|Spin|spin}} to the ball, vital for {{Cuegloss|Position play|position play}} and for spin-intensive shots such as {{Cuegloss|Massé|massés}}. In the 1800s, actual [[chalk]] (generally [[calcium carbonate]] lumps, suspended from strings), and even [[plaster]] was often used, but players experimented with other powdery, abrasive substances,<ref name="Shamos 1999" />{{Rp|46}}<ref name="APObit" /> since true chalk had a deleterious effect on the game equipment, not only discoloring the billiard cloth but actually causing the fabric to rot.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Stein & Paul Rubino | year = 1996 | edition= 2nd |chapter= Tables, Cloths, and Balls | title = The Billiard Encyclopedia: An Illustrated History of the Sport | publisher = Blue Book Publcations, Inc. | location = [[Minneapolis, MN]] | pages = p. 240 |id= ISBN 1-886768-06-4}}</ref>
{{Original research|date=September 2007}}
A true unipolarity that has influence all over the known world is difficult to form prior to the [[Age of Discovery]] due to the lack of communication and information regarding other nations. Therefore, all the examples of this list, except the last two, are examples of regional unipolarity.


* The [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptan Empire]], from 3150 BC to 664 BC (approximate dates, there was a slow break down of the kingdom in the end).
In 1892, Spinks was particularly impressed by a piece of natural chalk-like substance obtained in [[France]], and presented it to chemist and electrical engineer William Hoskins (1862&ndash;1934)<ref name="CHiC1">{{Cite web
* The Greeks, from 776 to 146 BC (In 332 BC the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight. and in 146 BC Greece was conquered by Rome and became part of the Roman Empire).
|url=http://chemhistory-chicago.org/1843.html
* The [[Persian Empire]] from 550 BC to 330 BC - From Central Asia to Macedonia, including Northern Africa and South Asia.
|title=C.H.i.C. Timeline 1843&ndash;1880
* The [[Roman Empire]] from 31 BC to the 5th century - Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia Minor.
|work=A Guide to the Chemical History of Chicago
* [[Chinese Empire]]s in the 1st century B.C.-3rd century A.D., 6th-8th century A.D., and 14th-18th century A.D. - Mainly China proper, at times stretching to as far as Central Asia, Mongolia, India and Southeast Asia.
|publisher=Chemical History in Chicago Project
* [[Mongolian Empire]] in the 13th and 14th centuries - All across Asia and to Eastern Europe and Egypt.
|year=date unspecified
* The [[Byzantine Empire]], 6th century onwards until its gradual decline and replacement by the [[Ottoman Empire]] - Eastern Europe, Northern Africa and Asia Minor, with influence reaching to as far as Spain at times. Exists as a bipolarity with the Western Roman Empire before its fall.
|accessdate=February 24, 2007
* The [[Ottoman Empire]], from the 15th to the 17th centuries - same as above.
}}</ref> of Chicago for analysis, who determined that it was porous [[Vulcanism|volcanic]] rock ([[pumice]]) originally probably from [[Mount Etna|Mount Etna, Sicily]]. Using the rock as a starting place, the two experimented together with different formulations of various materials to achieve the cue ball "{{Cuegloss|Action|action}}" that Spinks sought.<ref name="Clark" />
* The [[France|French Empire]], during the reigns of [[Louis XIV]] and [[Napoleon I]]
* The [[British Empire]] from the end of [[Napoleonic Wars]] - beginning of the 20th century
* The [[United States]]; with the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States became the dominant military force in the world, along with considerable economic, cultural, and political influence.


== Bipolarity ==<!-- This section is linked from [[National security]] -->
They finally honed in on a mixture of Illinois-sourced<ref name="Clark" /> [[silica]] and the abrasive substance [[corundum]] or aloxite<ref name="Patent578514" /> (a form of [[aluminum oxide]], Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>),<ref name="PubChem">{{Cite web
{{Original research|date=September 2007}}
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pccompound&term=Aluminum%20oxide
|title=Substance Summary: Aluminum Oxide
|work=PubChem Database
|pages="aloxite" and "corundum" search results
|publisher=National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health
|year=2008
|accessdate=August 16, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Chem1">{{Cite web
|url=http://www.chemindustry.com/chemicals/14835.html
|title=Aloxite
|work=ChemIndustry.com
|pages=Chemical Info database
|year=1999-2008
|accessdate=August 16, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Russell">{{Cite web
|url=http://www.traveltotourism.com/recreationarticles.php?ID=5419
|title=Billiards &mdash; The Transformation Years: 1845-1897
|last=Russell
|first=Michael
|work=Leisure and Sport Review
|date=December 23, 2005
|accessdate=August 19, 2008}} (Also appears on several other sites.) This questionable article was obviously used as the source for the ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation|CSI]]'' season 6 episode [http://www.crimelab.nl/transcripts.php?series=1&season=6&episode=22 "Time of Your Death"], in which pool chalk plays a small but crucial role; the show perpetuated the "axolite" for "aloxite" error in that article, to millions of viewers. It is retained as a (red-flagged) source here specifically to document this fact, as the term "axolite" cannot be found anywhere else.<!--This ref and note will eventually be moved to the [[billiard chalk]] article if/when there is one.--></ref> founding William A. Spinks & Company with a factory<ref name="APObit" /> in Chicago<ref name="Clark" /> after securing a patent on March 9, 1897.<ref name="Patent578514" /> Spinks himself later left the company as an active party, which retained his name and was subsequently run by Hoskins, and later by Hoskins's cousin<ref name="Clark" /> Edmund F. Hoskin,<!--No, that is NOT a typo for "Hoskins"!--><ref name="Patent1524132">{{US patent|1524132}}, January 27, 1925</ref> after Hoskins moved on to other projects.


Bipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which two states have the majority of economic, military, and cultural influence internationally or regionally. Often, spheres of influence would develop. For example, in the Cold War, most Western and democratic states would fall under the influence of the USA, while most Communist states would fall under the influence of the USSR. After this, the two powers will normally maneuver for the support of the unclaimed areas.
While regular calcium carbonate chalk had been packaged and marketed on a local scale by various parties ([[England|English]] player [[Jack Carr (billiards player)|Jack Carr]]'s "Twisting Powder" of the 1820s being the earliest recorded example, although considered dubious by some billiards researchers),<ref name="Shamos 1999" />{{Rp|46}} the Spinks Company product (which is still emulated by modern manufacturers today with differing, proprietary compounds)<ref name="Shamos 1999" />{{Rp|46}} effectively revolutionized billiards.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} The modern product provided a cue tip friction enhancer that allowed the tip to better grip the cue ball briefly<ref name="Patent578514" /> and impart a previously unattainable amount of {{Cuegloss|Spin|spin}} on the ball, which consequently allowed more precise and extreme {{Cuegloss|Position|cue ball control}}, made {{Cuegloss|Miscue|miscueing}} less likely, made {{Cuegloss|Semi-massé|curve}} and ''{{Cuegloss|Massé|massé}}'' shots more plausible, and ultimately spawned the new cue sport of [[artistic billiards]]. Even the basic {{Cuegloss|Draw|draw}} and {{Cuegloss|Follow|follow}} shots of [[Pocket billiards|pool]] games (like [[eight-ball]] and [[nine-ball]]) depend heavily on the effects and properties of modern billiard "chalk".
[[Image:Cold War Map 1959.svg|thumb|250px|This map shows two essential global spheres during the [[Cold War]] in 1959. Consult the legend on the map for more details.]]


===Examples===
Spinks made a "fortune"<ref name="APObit" /><ref name="NNObit" /><ref name="Cumberland">{{Cite journal
*The [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] during the peak of the [[Cold War]]. However, the [[Sino-Soviet split]] of circa 1960 led to the rise of China as a possible third superpower.
|url=http://search.ancestry.com
*[[Great Britain]] and [[France]] during the [[Early modern period|colonial era.]]
|title=Ten Years Ago
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|section="History" section
|pages=p. 4
|journal=Evening Times
|location=[[Cumberland, MD]]
|date=January 15, 1943
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}} Confirms "fortune".</ref> from his co-invention and the company that sold it to the world.


==As a player==
===Regional examples===
*[[Sparta]] and [[Athens]] during much of pre-Alexandrian Greek history.
Spinks was a formidable specialist and professional competitor in [[Balkline and straight rail#The rise and "fall" of straight rail|straight rail billiards]] (early on), and [[Balkline and straight rail|balkline billiards]] (arguably the most difficult of all cue sports aside from [[artistic billiards]]), especially 14.2 and later 18.2 balkline, and skilled enough at the even more difficult 18.1 variant to hold his own against World Champions.
*[[Carthage]] and the [[Roman Republic]] prior to the [[Punic Wars]]
*[[Roman Empire]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]] during the [[Roman-Persian Wars]], until the Arab invasion of Persia.
*[[Russia]] and [[Japan]], up until the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1905, causing bipolarity in spheres of influence in several parts of [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Mongolia]].
*[[Russia]], the [[Safavid Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in struggles to attain regions surrounding the [[Black Sea]], from the early 1700s until [[World War I]].
*[[Israel]] and [[Egypt]] could be considered regional powers in the Middle East during the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] from 1948-1978


===Multi-state examples of Bipolarity===
===1890s: Rise as a professional contender===
The bipolar system can be said to extend to much larger systems, such as alliances or organizations, which would not be considered nation-states, but would still have power concentrated in two primary groups.
He began his competitive professional playing career in [[Brooklyn, New York]],<ref name="BDESaw">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1893/12/20&Page=8&SelectedEntity=Ar00807&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Saw Good Billiards: Union Leaguers Entertained by Four Star Cue-wielders
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=[[Brooklyn Daily Eagle]]
|date=December 20, 1893
|pages=p. 8
|location=[[Brooklyn, NY]]
|accessdate=August 19, 2008}}
}} The piece (as several others did) misspelled his surname as "Spink". ''Note'': Each section of the newspaper page scans on this site can be clicked for a readable closeup.</ref> ca. 1893.<ref name="DatesNote">''Cf.'' the newspaper sources cited in more detail elsewhere in this article; no billiards-related coverage has been discovered so far pre-dating 1893.</ref>


In both [[World Wars]], much of the world, and especially [[Europe]], the [[United States]] and [[Japan]] had been divided into two respective spheres - one case being the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and [[Allies]] of [[World War II]] (1939-1945) - and the division of power between the [[Central Powers]] and [[Allied Powers]] during [[World War I]] (1914-1918). Neutral nations, however, may have caused what may be assessed as an example of tripolarity as well within both of the conflicts.
[[Image:Spinks massé 1893.png|thumb|right|An extreme {{Cuegloss|Massé|massé}} shot by Spinks during an 1893 exhibition game against [[Jacob Schaefer Sr.]] Starting from bottom left, his {{Cuegloss|Cue ball|cue ball}} swerves into and {{Cuegloss|Carom|caroms}} off one {{Cuegloss|Object ball|object ball}}, then due to its extreme {{Cuegloss|Spin|spin}} rebounds into the {{Cuegloss|Cushion|cushion}} ''four'' times before finally rolling away for a perfect, scoring hit on the other ball. And Spinks actually lost this game.]]


== Multipolarity ==
On December 19, 1893 in Brooklyn, Spinks played in an [[Exhibition game|exhibition]] that also featured the great [[Maurice Daly]] and young champion [[Frank Ives]], and gave demonstrations of fancy {{Cuegloss|Massé|massé}} shots. He also played a 14.2<!--Source just says 14, but 14.1 did not exist yet, so 14.2 is certain.--> balkline match against World Champion [[Jacob Schaefer Sr.|Jacob Schaefer&nbsp;Sr.]]; Schaefer won, 250&ndash;162, with a high {{Cuegloss|Run|run}} and average of 88 and 20 (respectively) to Spinks's 33 and 13.<ref name="BDESaw" />
Multipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which more than four nation-states have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural, and economic influence.


Opinions on the stability of multipolarity differ. [[Political realism|Classical realist]] theorists, such as [[Hans Morgenthau]] and [[E. H. Carr]] hold that multipolar systems are more stable than bipolar systems, as great powers can gain power through alliances and petty wars that do not directly challenge other powers; in bipolar systems, classical realists argue, this is not possible. On the other hand, the [[neorealism (international relations)|neorealist]] focus on security inverts the the formula: states in a multipolar system can focus their fears on any number of other powers and, misjudging the intentions of other states, unnecessarily compromise their security, while states in a bipolar system always focus their fears on one other power, meaning that at worst the powers will miscalculate the force required to counter threats and spend slightly too much on the operation. However, due to the complexity of [[mutually assured destruction]] scenarios, with nuclear weapons, multipolar systems may be more stable than bipolar systems even in the neorealist analysis.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} This system tends to have many shifting alliances until one of two things happens. Either a balance of power is struck, and neither side wants to attack the other, or one side will attack the other because it either fears the potential of the new alliance, or it feels that it can defeat the other side.
In 1894, he was living in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], and in January of that year offered a convoluted challenge to veteran {{Cuegloss|Cueist|cueist}} [[Edward McLaughlin (billiards player)|Edward McLaughlin]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], to play him either a single 14.2 match to 600 {{Cuegloss|Points|points}} for [[United States dollar|US$]]500 each (a substantial amount of money in that period for someone to put up personally on a bet &ndash; approximately $11,400 in 2007 dollars)<ref name="InflaCalc">{{Cite web
|url=http://www.westegg.com/inflation/
|title=The Inflation Calculator
|last=Friedman
|first=S. Morgan
|year=2007
|work=WestEgg.com
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}}</ref> in New York, or one in New York and one in Philadelphia, <em>or</em> one in Cincinnati and one in Philadelphia, whatever McLaughlin preferred, and even offered to pay travel expenses to Cincinnati.<ref name="BDEChallenge">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1894/01/06&Page=8&SelectedEntity=Ar00812&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Spinks Will Meet McLaughlin
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=January 6, 1894
|pages=p. 8
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008}}
}}</ref>


One of the major implications of an international system with any number of poles, including a multipolar system, is that international decisions will often be made for strategic reasons to maintain a balance of power rather than out of ideological or historical reasons.
Spinks issued an even more curious challenge in November 1894, to play 14.2 balkline against (almost) any challenger to 600 points for a $1,000 pot again, and while including [[French people|French]] champion [[Edward Fournil]], the bet specifically ''excluded'' the top-three names in that era of the sport, namely Shaefer, Ives and [[George Franklin Slosson]].<ref name="NYTChallenge">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50B1EF63A5515738DDDAC0894D9415B8485F0D3 |title=Spinks's Billiard Challenge
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=November 5, 1894
|pages=p. 6
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=February 25, 2007
}} A very short sports column note. NB: Though the article called the game "fourteen-inch balkline" it meant 14.2 balkline more specifically, because 14.1 was not introduced into tournaments until 1914.</ref> The challenge was accepted by well-known Chicago pro [[Thomas Gallagher (billiards player)|Thomas Gallagher]] (in a match that future champion [[Ora Morningstar]] traveled all the way to Chicago to see).<ref name="NYTGallagher">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E00E0D61131E033A2575AC1A9679D94659ED7CF |title=Billiard Notes
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=November 18, 1894<!--The page at the URL says Nov. 19, but the article itself states Nov. 18.-->
|pages=p. 7 (below Navy article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Sports column entry.</ref><ref name="SD">{{Cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=G8cUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA364&dq=%22William+A.+Spinks%22
|title=City of San Diego and San Diego County: The Birthplace of California
|volume=Vol. 1
|section=Section 31: "Morningstar, Maurice Daly, billiards"
|last=McGrew
|first=Clarence Alan
|pages=p. 364
|year=1922
|publisher=[[American Historical Society]]
|location=[[Chicago, IL]] &amp; [[New York, NY]]
|section="Ora C. Morningstar" entry
}}</ref>


The 'Concert of Europe,' a period from after the Napoleonic Wars to the Crimean War, was an example of peaceful multipolarity (the great powers of Europe assembled regularly to discuss international and domestic issues). [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Thirty Years War]], and the [[Warring States Period]] are all examples of a wartime multipolarity.
Spinks was apparently not a fan of upstart cueist Ives in particular. Days after issuing his caveat-laden challenge, Spinks was described by an onlooking journalist as "very uneasy until the seventeenth inning" as a spectator at the 14.2 balkline World Champion challenge {{Cuegloss|Match|match}} between Ives and incumbent Schaefer; the latter's point total had been trailing, sometimes badly, in all sixteen previous {{Cuegloss|Inning|innings}} until he rallied in the final one of the {{Cuegloss|Game|game}}.<ref name="NYTWizard">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4071EFE395515738DDDAA0994D9415B8485F0D3 |title=Schaefer Is in the Lead &ndash; The "Wizard" 32 Points Ahead of Ives, the Young Expert: Both Men Played Good, Strong Billiards and Ives Led Up to the Last Inning &mdash; Pretty Nursing by the Youthful Aspirant for Championship Honors &mdash; Ives Had the Best Average and the Highest Run in the Opening Night's Play
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=February 25, 1894
|pages=p. 2
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=February 25, 2007
}} An eyewitness summary of the first day of the match. The piece amply demonstrates the popularity of the sport at the time, as the in-depth article made the second page of the newspaper as a whole.</ref> Spinks, along with Gallagher, even helped Schaefer train in 14.2 for another match against Ives, in October of that year; though Spinks lost this practice match 600&ndash;369 (averages 23 vs. 14), he had a high {{Cuegloss|Run|run}} of 109, to Schaefer's 102 (and Gallagher's 157 <em>total</em>).<ref name="NYTSpinksLeads">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B0CE7D61531E033A2575AC2A9669D94659ED7CF |title=Billiards by the Experts
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=October 29, 1894<!--Probably really Oct. 28 - NYT archival material seems to be dated one day later than the actual publication date in most cases.-->
|pages=p. 12 (below real estate article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Sports column entry.</ref>


[[Image:Nixon Mao 1972-02-29.png|thumb|[[Richard Nixon]] meets [[Mao Zedong]]]]
Spinks was reported in the press in 1895 to be specifically desired as a competitor in an upcoming seven-man invitational tournament for "second class" professional players (i.e., not the top 3), organized by Daly, and with as much as $1,200 (approx. $28,400 in 2007 dollars)<ref name="InflaCalc" /> {{Cuegloss|Added|added}}.
<ref name="BDECrack">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1895/02/22&Page=4&SelectedEntity=Ar00431&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Crack Billiards Players in Tournament
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=February 22, 1895
|pages=p. 4
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}}</ref>


=== Multipolarity today ===
Spinks had moved to Chicago by 1896,<ref name="BDEGood">{{Cite journal
Those claiming that the world is multipolar fall into two main camps. A "superpower is something of the past" view holds that the USA and USSR in the Cold War were in fact superpowers, but argues that due to the complex economic interdependencies on the international scale and the creation of a global village, the concept of one or more states gaining enough power to claim superpower status is antiquated. The rival view is that even throughout the Cold War, neither the USA or the USSR were superpowers, but were actually dependent on the smaller states in their "spheres of influence."
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1896/09/24&Page=12&SelectedEntity=Ar01201&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Good Billiards Ahead: Maurice Daly Promises Great Things for This City
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=September 24, 1896
|pages=p. 12
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}}</ref> and was perfecting his billiard chalk with Hoskins. That year he was noted for besting McLaughlin at 14.2 by a comfortable 2500&ndash;2300 margin (with averages of 11 vs. 10) in a five-evening, $250 (approx. $6150, in 2007 dollars)<ref name="InflaCalc" /> 14.2 match, December 8&ndash;12, in Slosson's New York City [[billiard hall]]. At one point he had trailed rather badly, 1500&ndash;1880, after McLaughlin pulled off a stunning run of 140 (Spinks's highest recorded run of the match was 69).<ref name="BDEAgreement">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1896/11/24&Page=10&SelectedEntity=Ar01031&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=To Play 14-inch Balk Line
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=November 24, 1896
|pages=p. 10
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} The event was originally slated to begin December 7.</ref><ref name="NYTSpinksLeads">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9801E3DF1038E233A25753C1A9649D94679ED7CF |title=Spinks Leads at Billiards
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=December 9, 1896
|pages=p. 9 (below track and field article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 15, 2008
}} A short sports column note.</ref><ref name="NYTMcLaughlinRun">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9801E3DF1038E233A25753C1A9649D94679ED7CF |title=McLaughlin's Brilliant Run
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=December 10, 1896
|pages=p. 2 (below cricket article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 15, 2008
}} A short sports column note.</ref><ref name="BDESpinksStill">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1896/12/11&Page=10&SelectedEntity=Ar01039&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Spinks Still Ahead
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=December 11, 1896
|pages=p. 10
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Sports column note.</ref><ref name="NYTSpinksWins">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D03E4D8103BEE33A25751C1A9649D94679ED7CF |title=Spinks Wins at Billiards
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=December 12, 1896
|pages=p. 3 (below Platt article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 15, 2008
}} Another very short sports column note.</ref><ref name="BDESpinksWins">{{Cite journal
|url=http://eagle.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/Default/Scripting/ArchiveView.asp?BaseHref=BEG/1896/12/12&Page=9&SelectedEntity=Ar00932&skin=BEagle&GZ=T
|title=Spinks Wins the Match
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Brooklyn Daily Eagle
|date=December 12, 1896
|pages=p. 9
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Sports column note.</ref>


While the US has a great deal of economic clout and has influenced the culture of many nations, their dependency on foreign investors and reliance on foreign trade have created a mutual economic dependency between developed and developing nations. According to those who believe the world is multipolar, this interdependency means the US can't be called a superpower as it isn't self-sufficient and relies on the global community to sustain its people's quality of life. These interdepencies also apply to diplomacy. Considering the complex state of world affairs and the military might of some developing nations, it has become increasingly difficult to engage in foreign policy if it is not supported by other nations. The diplomatic and economic factors that bind the global village together have created a state in which no nation or union can dominate the others.<ref name="The Global list (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3553|title=The Global list (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-10}}</ref><ref name="Washington Post (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/03/AR2006030302055.html|title=Washington Post (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-10}}</ref><ref name="Huffington Post (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jane-smiley/superpower_b_11048.html|title=Huffington Post (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-11}}</ref><ref name="Globalpolicy.org (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/empire/challenges/competitors/2005/0315chinapower.htm|title=Globalpolicy.org (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-11}}</ref><ref name="Townhall.com (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/cliffordmay/2004/12/30/14102.html|title=Townhall.com (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-11}}</ref><ref name="A Times (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/ED05Ak01.html|title=A Times (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-11}}</ref><ref name="Captol Hill Blue (No superpower)">{{cite web|url=http://www.capitolhillblue.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=38&num=5921|title=Captol Hill Blue (No superpower)|accessdate=2006-06-11}}</ref>
By 1897, the year of the launch of Spinks & Company, he had evidently overcome his seeming reluctance to face World Champions again (perhaps from having several years' experience with his own product prototypes). Spinks competed in (but did not win) a December 3 open tournament.<ref name="Yearbook">{{Cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2VwMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Spinks+billiards&lr=#PPA99,M1
|title=The International Year Book: A Compendium of the World's Progress in Every Department of Human Knowledge During the Year 1898
|last=Colby
|first=Frank Moore
|coauthors=Peck, Harry Thurston; Engle, Edward Lathrop (eds.)
|section="Billiards" entry
|pages=p. 99
|publisher=Dodd, Mead &amp; Co.
|location=New York, NY
|year=1899
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}}</ref>


==Nonpolarity==
The next month in New York City, a January 15&ndash;21, 1898 [[Double-elimination tournament|double-elimination]], five-man invitational 18.2 balkline tournament was arranged, again in Chicago. It was a [[Handicapping|handicapped]] event, featuring the five top players from the previous event &ndash; Schaefer and Ives, as World Champions, had to reach 600 points to Spinks's, [[William Catton]]'s and [[George Sutton (billiards player)|George Sutton]]'s 260.<ref name="NYTChicago">{{Cite journal
Nonpolarity refers to an international system with numerous centers of power; no one center of power dominates. Centers of power can be Nation-states, corporations, non-governmental organizations, terrorist groups, and such. Power is found in many hands and many places.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20080501faessay87304-p0/richard-n-haass/the-age-of-nonpolarity.html |title=The Age of Nonpolarity |accessdate=2008-08-05 |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=May/June 2008 |last=Haass |first=Richard N.}}</ref>
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F03E2DC1638E433A25755C1A9679C94699ED7CF |title=Chicago Billiards Tourney
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 15, 1898<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 16, but the article itself states Jan. 15.-->
|pages=p. 4
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 15, 2008
}} Another short sports column piece.</ref> Without having to rely on the 600-point handicap, Spinks beat Schaefer flat-out, 260&ndash;139 (with a high {{Cuegloss|Run|run}} of 48 vs. Schaefer's 38) in his January 18 second game.<ref name="NYTSpinksWin">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F1071FF8395811738DDDA00994D9405B8885F0D3 |title=Spinks Defeats Schaeffer <sup>&#91;''sic''&#93;''</sup>
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 18, 1898<!--The date is correct on this one.-->
|pages=p. 5
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 16, 2008
}} Another short sport column piece.</ref> Spinks (with a high run of "only" 44) was himself defeated in a very close 249&ndash;260 third game a day later by Catton (high run 56) &ndash; by way of comparison, the same night Ives trounced Sutton by a whopping 400&ndash;160.<ref name="NYTCattonSpinks">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A0CE6D8123CE433A25753C2A9679C94699ED7CF |title=Chicago Billiard Tournament: Catton Defeats Spinks and Ives Defeats Sutton by 400 to 160
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 19, 1898<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 20, but the article itself states Jan. 19.-->
|pages=p. 5
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 16, 2008
}} More summary sports coverage.</ref> By January 20, Spinks seemed to be running out of steam, as Sutton took him 260&ndash;118, (high runs 73 vs. 30), <ref name="NYTSuttonSpinks">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9405E7DE1030E333A25752C2A9679C94699ED7CF |title=Chicago Billiard Tournament: Sutton Defeats Spinks, and Is Beaten by Schaefer
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 20, 1898<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 21, but the article itself states Jan. 20.-->
|pages=p. 4
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=February 25, 2007
}} More summary sports coverage.</ref> and he lost again 154&ndash;400 (with another high run of 44) to Ives a day later. (In Spinks's defense, he not only did better against Ives than Catton had, but Ives also had a very impressive high run of 136, making it virtually impossible to catch up.) This loss put Spinks out of the tournament at 4th place.<ref name="NYTSchaeferIves">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9A06E3DB1638E433A25751C2A9679C94699ED7CF&oref=slogin |title=Chicago Billiard Tournament: Schaefer and Ives Win Games &ndash; The Former Breaks a Record
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 21, 1898<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 22, but the article itself states Jan. 21.-->
|pages=p. 10
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 17, 2008
}} More summary sports coverage.</ref>


== Measuring the power concentration ==
===1900s: World-class competitor===
The [[Correlates of War]] uses a systemic concentration of power formula to calculate the polarity of a given [[great power]] system. The formula was developed by [[J. David Singer]] et al. in 1972.<ref name="mansfield">{{cite journal |last=Mansfield |first=Edward D. |authorlink=Edward Mansfield |year=1993 |month=March |title=Concentration, Polarity, and the Distribution of Power |journal=International Studies Quarterly |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=105–128 |id= |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-8833%28199303%2937%3A1%3C105%3ACPATDO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 |accessdate=2007-03-01 |doi=10.2307/2600833 }}</ref>
Spinks was still considered a newsworthy contender over a decade later, for the World 18.2 Balkline Championship of 1909, being enumerated in "a fine list of entries" anticipated for the March event.<ref name="NYTTitles">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70816F83C5C15738DDDAD0A94D9405B898CF1D3 |title=Billiard Titles in New Contests: Clearance of Clouds and Quibbles Promised in Winter Series of Games &ndash; Championships Are Lure &ndash; Challenge Match Between Sutton and Slosson Will Open Tilts and Lead to Open Tournament
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 24, 1909
|section="Sporting News" section
|pages=p. S3
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=February 25, 2007
}} Another in-depth piece that further demonstrates the popularity of carom billiards in its heyday and the seriousness with which it was treated by the media. It is notable that Spinks, Sutton, Slosson, Morningstar and [[Albert Cutler]] were simply given by name, while all others on the list were given by name and city (e.g. "Calvin Demarest of Chicago"), indicating that Spinks was a well-known public figure at this time.</ref>


:Concentration<sub>t</sub> = <math>\sqrt{\frac{\sum_{i=1}^{N_{t}} (S_{it})^2 - \frac{1}{N_{t}}}{1 - \frac{1}{N_{t}}}}</math>
On January 11, Spinks (with a high run of 51) beat former amateur champion and then-pro [[Calvin Demarest]], 250&ndash;199, in only 15 innings, despite scoring 0 points in 4 innings and only 1 point in another, by building several solid runs in the innings in which things went his way. For all intents and purposes it was a 10-inning win.<ref name="NYTSurprise">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E6DE1031E733A25751C1A9679C946897D6CF |title=Surprise in Billiards: Spinks Scores Well-earned Victory Over Demarest in Final Inning
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 12, 1909<!--Probably really Jan. 11 - NYT archival material seems to be dated one day later than the actual publication date in most cases.-->
|pages=p. 10 (below NYAC article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} A sports column piece.</ref> Demarest took his revenge only days later, defeating Spinks in a close 250&ndash;225, 23-inning game on January 13, despite Spinks's high run of 78 (his highest 18.2 run on record in publicly-available sources, and considerably higher than Demarest's 52 that night).<ref name="NYTDemarest1">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F06E2DE1031E733A25757C1A9679C946897D6CF |title=Two Games for Demarest
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 13, 1909<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 14, but the article itself states Jan. 13.-->
|pages=p. 8 (below New Orleans article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} A very short sports column piece.</ref> Spinks lost to him again the very next day, 175&ndash;250, in an [[exhibition game]], despite Spinks's solid high run of 69, and also beat veteran pro Tom Gallagher.<ref name="NYTDemarest2">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9903E1D7143DE733A25756C1A9679C946897D6CF |title=Demarest Beats Veterans
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=[[New York Times]]
|date=January 14, 1909<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 15, but the article itself states Jan. 14.-->
|pages=p. 7 (below Syracuse & Sutton articles)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports column.</ref>{{Clarifyme|date=August 2008}}<!--Wait, WHO beat Gallagher? Re-read sources and rewrite this to make sense.-->


*N<sub>t</sub> = the number of states in the great power system at time t
In January 1909, just prior to an 18.1 balkline championship at Madison Square Garden (in which Spinks was not competing), he and [[Mauricy Daly]] were observed playing practice games with Sutton for the latter's pre-event training, in Daly's [[billiard hall]] in New York City, on multiple occasions over a several-day stretch. While Spinks lost all but one of the recorded matches of this series, one loss was by a hair, at 400&ndash;399, another was 400&ndash;370, and his victory was a surprising 300&ndash;194 &ndash; and 18.1 was not his preferred game.<ref name="NYTSutton1">{{Cite journal
*S<sub>it</sub> = the proportion of power possessed by state i at time t (must be a decimal figure)
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9903E1D7143DE733A25756C1A9679C946897D6CF |title=Sutton to Practice at Daly's
:S = the proportion of power possessed
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
:i = the state of which the proportion of control over the system's power is being measured
|journal=New York Times
:t = the time at which the concentration of resources (i.e. power) is being calculated
|date=January 14, 1909<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 15, but the article itself states Jan. 14.-->
*<math>\sum_{k=1}^{k=n} (S_{it})^2</math> = the sum of the proportion of power possessed by all states in the great power system
|pages=p. 7 (below Syracuse article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports column.</ref><ref name="NYTSutton2">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9802EFDE1031E733A2575AC1A9679C946897D6CF |title=Sutton Wins and Loses
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 18, 1909<!--The page at the URL says Jan. 19, but the article itself states Jan. 18.-->
|pages=p. 9 (below McGann article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports column.</ref><ref name="NYTSutton3">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B03E4DD1031E733A25752C2A9679C946897D6CF |title=Two Billiard Victories for Sutton
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 21, 1909
|pages=p. 7 (below Dartmouth article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports column.</ref><ref name="NYTSutton4">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D0DE2DD1031E733A25750C2A9679C946897D6CF |title=Sutton Scores a Double: Billiard Champ Beats Morningstar and Spinks in His Practice
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 23, 1909
|pages=p. 7 (below the Dartmouth article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports column.</ref><ref name="NYTSutton5">{{Cite journal
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9806E7D91738E033A25757C2A9679C946897D6CF |title=Sutton Wins Two Balkline Games
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=January 24, 1909
|section="Sporting News" section
|pages=p. S1 (below the ice skating article)
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 18, 2008
}} Short sports page note.</ref>


The closer the resulting concentration is to zero, the more evenly divided power is. The closer to 1, the more concentrated power is. There is a general but not strict correlation between concentration and polarity. It is rare to find a result over 0.5, but a result between 0.4 and 0.5 usually indicates a unipolar system, while a result between 0.2 and 0.4 usually indicated a bipolar or multipolar system. Concentration can be plotted over time, so that the fluctuations and trends in concentration can be observed.
Many articles of the era stress that Spinks was a Californian, because during this period American billiards was completely dominated by [[East Coast of the United States|East-Coasters]] and a few [[American Midwest|Midwesterners]].<ref name="NYTNote">''Cf.'' the ''New York Times'' pieces cited in more detail elsewhere in this article.</ref>
concentration of power formula to calculate the polarity of a given great power system.


== See also ==
===1910s: Setting a record and leveling the field===
* [[Balance of power]]
Spinks was noted in 1912 for a still-unbroken world record {{Cuegloss|Run|run}} of 1,010 continuous points at 18.2 balkline using the "{{Cuegloss|Chuck nurse|chuck nurse}}" (a form of {{Cuegloss|Nurse|nurse shot}}), and could have made more, but stopped,<ref name="Shamos 1999">{{Shamos 1999}}</ref>{{Rp|52, 289}}<ref name="NNObit" /> before {{Cuegloss|Anchor space|anchor space}} rules were instituted especially to curtail the effectiveness of the chuck nurse.<ref name="Shamos 1999" />{{Rp|8}}<ref name="Loy1">{{Cite web
|url= http://www.jimloy.com/billiard/chuck.htm
|title=The Chuck Nurse
|last=Loy
|first=Jim
|work=Jim Loy's Billiards/Pool Page
|year=2000
|accessdate=February 24, 2007
}} The Shamos source is the authoritative one, but this site provides an animated illustration of precisely how the chuck nurse works.</ref> The use of such repetitive, predictable shots by Spinks, Schaefer Sr. and their contemporaries led to the development of the more advanced and restrictive ''14.1 balkline'' rules (invented in 1907, but not played professionally until 1914), which further thwarted the ease of reliance on nurse shots than the older balkline games already did.<ref name="Shamos 1999" />{{Rp|15-16}}


==Bibliography==
In August 1915, Spinks was tapped to join a consultative panel of notable players and major billiard hall proprietors to help develop a new handicapping system for balkline billiards, organized by the [[Brunswick Corporation|Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company]], at that time the organizers of the World Championships. The inspiration for the new system was simply making it possible for the newly ascendant [[Willie Hoppe]] to be meaningfully challenged (his near-unassailability was hurting billiard tournament revenues, because the outcome was considered foreordained by many potential ticket-buyers), although the system was expected to level the playing field in other ways, especially making it easier for skilled amateurs to enter the professional ranks.<ref name="NYT">{{Cite web
* Thompson, William R. ''On Global War: Historical-Structural Approaches to World Politics.'' Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988, pp. 209-210.
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9806E7DE103CE333A25756C0A96E9C946496D6CF
|title=New Billiard Plan of Rating Players: Hoppe Will Lead the List&mdash;Handicaps for All of the Others<sup>&#91;''sic''&#93;''</sup><!--This is actually a 180-degree inversion of the meaning of "handicap" in sports terminology! Hoppe is the one with the handicap, the others are getting a break.-->
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=New York Times
|date=August 5, 1915
|pages=p. 9
|publisher=''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} The article refers to him as "W.M. Spinks of Los Angeles", a typo for "W.A." or "Wm.", and could not plausibly refer to anyone else, as there was no other notable W. Spinks in the billiards world of the period (or since), only two amateurs, C.A. and John Spinks, meanwhile William was the only Californian among them.</ref>


==As an oilman==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Sect-stub|date=August 2008}}
Spinks described himself as a [[Senior management|director]] of an [[oil company]] as of 1900.<ref name="Census 1900" /><ref name="APObit" /> He [[Investment|invested]] money from his billiard equipment corporation in the [[petroleum]] industry in California.{{Fact|date=September 2008|comment=Sources found, just need to add them. -SMcCandlish.}}


==As a farmer==
==External links==
*[http://blog.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/drg/ Global Power Barometer]
{{Sect-stub|date=August 2008}}
*[http://www.helium.com/tm/495240/during-wwiii-forced-break Questioning the Role of the US]
While Spinks was not operating a farm as of 1900,<ref name="Census 1900" /> he described himself as a [[flower]] [[Farmer|farmer]] (among other such specialists in the area) in 1910,<ref name="Census 1910" /> and an [[avocado]] "[[Ranch|ranch]]er" by 1920.<ref name="Census 1920" /><ref name="APObit" /> As a [[pomology]] [[Horticulture|horticulturist]], he developed the Spinks avocado [[cultivar]].{{Fact|date=September 2008|comment=Sources found, just need to add them. -SMcCandlish.}} As a [[Floriculture|floriculurist]], he made no known major contributions.

==Private life==
William A. Spinks Jr., the youngest of five children, was born July 11, 1865 in the then-small [[township]] of [[San Jose, California]], to struggling farmer William A. and wife Cynthia J. (Prather) Spinks. He had blue eyes, dark hair and a ruddy complexion, and was 5&nbsp;feet 8&nbsp;inches (1.73&nbsp;m) tall by adulthood.<ref name="Census 1870">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=1870 United States Federal Census
|year=1870
|section="William A. Spinks" entries in California (there are only two, father and son). Provides age of 5, birthplace, parents' names and birthplaces, mother's middle initial, father's occupation, siblings, father's assets ($2,000 in total estate value, did not own the land he worked, in contrast to most neighbors). ''Note:'' The full details of the search results from the URL provided for this and various other public records here are only available with a paid subscription to the search service, but are extant in their original paper forms for verification.
|publisher=[[US Census Bureau]]
|location=[[Washington, DC]]
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}}</ref><ref name="Passengers">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at San Francisco, 1893-1953 (National Archives Microfilm Publication M1410)
|section=item "List of United States Citizens: SS Golden State, Departing from Hong Kong May 2, 1922, Arriving at Port of San Francisco"
|publisher=[[US Immigration and Naturalization Service]]
|location=Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Record Group 85, National Archives, Washington, DC
|year=1954
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}} Provides William's middle name, marriage date, Duarte residence overlapping with Monrovia (''cf.'' 1920 Census); confirms Clara's middle name, William's birth place, birth dates of both. ''Cf.'' 1922 passport applications. Another ship manifest shows them returning from a trip to Italy in 1909, amusingly listing William's occupation simply as "capitalist". Another shows Clara returning from a visit to her native country of Sweden in 1937 (necessarily alone). Neither provide additional details, so are not cited here in full. Another, with both returning from England in 1925, again confirms that they retained the property in Duarte after getting the Monrovia house. All of the above are available as scans from Ancestry.com.</ref><ref name="Braddock">{{Cite web
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=Braddock Family Tree
|last=Braddock
|first=Bruce
|work=Ancestry.com
|publisher=The Generations Network
|location=
|accessdate=August 20, 2008
}} Provides mother's maiden name. While a tertiary source, it agrees in every respect with vital records data. ''Note:'' The full details of the search results from the URL provided for this and various other public records here are only available with a paid subscription to the search service.</ref><ref name="Passport">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=Passport Applications, January 2, 1906 &ndash; March 31, 1925; (National Archives Microfilm Publication M1490)
|section=entries for "William A. Spinks" (1922), and "William A. Spinks" &amp; "Clara A. Spinks" (1924).
|publisher=[[US Department of State]]
|location=General Records of the Department of State, Record Group 59, National Archives, Washington, DC
|year=1926
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}} 1924: Provides full birth dates and places for both, photos of them, their height and appearance, William's occupation as "fruit grower", plans for whirlwind world tour including the British Isles, France, Italy, Japan, China, Hong Kong, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Egypt, India, Palestine, the Holy Land, Switzerland, Austria and Germany, for the purpose of "travel" (and "visit relatives" in the case of Clara), summer of 1924; confirms residence in Duarte (overlapping Monrovia), William's father's name and birthplace. 1922: Same confirmations, for William; photo of the couple together, travel plans for Japan, China, Hong Kong.</ref> Nothing is known of his education.

[[Image:William A. and Clara Spinks 1922.png|thumb|left|209px|William and Clara Spinks in 1922]]
On September 1, 1891 he married Clara Alexandria Karlson (b. December 12, 1871, [[Gothenburg, Sweden]], immigrated 1872; d. October 4, 1949, Los Angeles); they were to remain together for over 40 years. They returned to California from Chicago before the turn of the century. After a period in a [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] apartment (ca. 1900), they lived in the (then-rural) [[Los Angeles County, California|L.A. suburbs]] of [[Duarte, California|Duarte]] (ca. 1910) where their farm was, and later (by 1920) [[Monrovia, California|Monrovia]], where they maintained a modest house in addition to the farm. After William's business success, the couple became extensive world travelers.<ref name="Census 1900">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=1900 United States Federal Census
|year=1900
|section="William A. Spinks" and "Clara A. Spinks" entries (the only ones in California)
|publisher=US Census Bureau, ''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Provides San Francisco residence, marital status, marriage year 1890&ndash;91, William's occupation as "oil company director"; confirms ages, birth places, no children; does not mention farm, or Clara's immigration year.
</ref><ref name="Census 1910">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=1910 United States Federal Census
|year=1910
|section="William A. Spinks" entry in Los Angeles (the only there one, and the only one in California for that matter)
|publisher=US Census Bureau, ''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Provides Duarte residence/farm, marriage year 1891&ndash;1892 (off by 1 compared to multiple other sources), Clara's immigration year, William's occupation as flower farmer (employer), land owned free and clear, neighbors engaged in flower farming; confirms marital status, no children, ages, birth places, parents' birth places. Copy is poor; data columns verified by comparison to [http://c.ancestry.com/pdf/trees/charts/1910.pdf legible blank 1910 census form].</ref><ref name="Census 1920">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/search/default.aspx?cat=35
|title=1920 United States Federal Census
|year=1920
|section="William A. Spinks" entry in Los Angeles (the only one there, and the only one in California)
|publisher=US Census Bureau, ''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Provides Monrovia residence, William's occupation as avocado farmer, Clara's immigration date; confirms ages, marital status, birth places, no children, parents' birth places, free-owned home, Clara's immigration year. Copy is poor; data columns verified by comparison to [http://c.ancestry.com/pdf/trees/charts/1920.pdf legible blank 1920 census form].</ref><ref name="Census 1930">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=1930 United States Federal Census
|year=1930
|section="William A. Spinks" entry in Los Angeles (the only one there, and the only one in California)
|publisher=US Census Bureau, ''ibid.''
|accessdate=August 19, 2008
}} Provides home value of $6,000 in Monrovia, non-veteran; confirms Monrovia residence, owned home, living on farm, William's occupation as avocado "rancher" (employer, active), marriage year 1880&ndash;1, ages, marital status, birth places, no children, parents' birth places. Copy is poor; data columns verified by comparison to [http://c.ancestry.com/pdf/trees/charts/1930.pdf legible blank 1930 census form].</ref><ref name="CADeathIdx">{{Cite book
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=California Death Index, 1940&ndash;1997
|publisher=Center for Health Statistics, Department of Health Services, [[State of California]]
|location=[[Sacramento, CA]]
|year=1998
|accessdate=August 20, 2008
}} Provides Clara's maiden name, death date and place; confirms her birth date. Curiously, William does not appear in the index, despite have been reported to have died in Monrovia, L.A. County. It is therefore possible that he actually died in an out-of-state hospital.</ref><ref name="Passengers" />

William Spinks died January 15, 1933, aged 67, in Monrovia.<ref name="APObit">{{Cite journal
|url=http://search.ancestry.com/
|title=Billiard Cue Chalk Inventor Dead
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|journal=Associated Press Newswire
|location=New York City, NY
|date=January 16, 1933
|publisher=[[Associated Press]]
|accessdate=November 25, 2006
}} Appeared in the [[San Antonio, Texas]] ''Express'', [[Helena, Montana]] ''Daily Independent'', ''New York Times'', [[Huron, South Dakota]] ''Evening Huronite'', [[Hagerstown, Maryland]] ''Daily Mail'', and many other newspapers. The exact title and text varies from publication to publication &ndash; from 2 sentences to five paragraphs &ndash; due to editorial alterations to the newswire. The full version can be found in the ''Express'' and ''Daily Independent''. Provides specific mention of Chicago factory; confirms involvement in oil industry, avocado growing, as well as birthplace and that he made a "fortune" on the chalk; also provides info on use of pre-Spinks chalk.</ref><ref name="NNObit">{{Cite journal
|url=http://search.ancestry.com
|title=W. A. Spinks Dies
|author=<!--staff writers, no by-line-->
|section="Sports: Local&mdash;District&mdash;World" section
|journal=Newcastle News
|location=[[Newcastle, PA]]
|date=January 16, 1933
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}} Provides more specific death place; confirms Pacific Coast Champion titles; implies incorrectly that he died on January 16; mentions his world record, but off by 10 points.</ref>

The Los Angeles County valley [[Spinks Canyon, California|Spinks Canyon]], its stream Spinks Canyon Creek, and the local major thoroughfare Spinks Canyon Road (running through Duarte and [[Bradbury, California|Bradbury]]), are named after William Spinks,<ref name="">{{Cite journal
|url=http://search.ancestry.com
|title=Area Street Names Traced to Pioneers
|last=Beardshear
|first=Laurie
|journal=''Star-News''
|pages=p. C3
|location=[[Pasadena, CA]]
|date=December 13, 1973
|accessdate=August 21, 2008
}}</ref> who would probably be surprised that homes in the area can fetch over $1mil; his house in nearby Monrovia was valued at only $6,000 ($72,000 in 2007 dollars)<ref name="InflaCalc" /> in 1930.<ref name="Census 1930" />

<br style="clear:both;" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}


{{International power}}
{{Cue sports nav}}


[[Category:International relations]]


[[da:Magtbalanceordning]]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
[[ru:Баланс сил (геополитика)]]
{{Persondata
|NAME = Spinks, William Alexander, Jr.
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Spinks, William A. (most common professional name); Spinks, Wm. A. (professional name as used in some media); Spinks, W. A. (professional name as used in some media); Spinks, Billy (professional name as used in some media)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[Carom billiards]] [[Sportsperson|player]], [[Independent inventor|inventor]], [[oil company]] [[investor]] and [[Senior management|director]], [[farmer]]/[[Horticulture|horticulturist]]
|DATE OF BIRTH = July 11, 1865
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[San Jose, California]]
|DATE OF DEATH = January 15, 1933
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Monrovia, California]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Spinks, William A.}}
[[Category:American carom billiards players]]
[[Category:American farmers]]
[[Category:American inventors]]
[[Category:American oil industrialists]]
[[Category:American sports businesspeople]]
[[Category:California businesspeople]]
[[Category:Cue sports inventors and innovators]]
[[Category:Floriculturists]]
[[Category:Pomologists]]
[[Category:World record holders]]
[[Category:People from Brooklyn]]
[[Category:People from Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:People from Cincinnati, Ohio]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles County]]
[[Category:People from San Francisco, California]]
[[Category:People from San Jose, California]]
[[Category:1865 births]]
[[Category:1933 deaths]]

Revision as of 00:14, 13 October 2008

Polarity in international relations is a description of the distribution of power within the international system. It describes the nature of the international system at any given period of time. There are three types of systems, Unipolarity, Bipolarity, and Multipolarity. The type of system is completely dependent on the distribution of power and influence of states in a region or internationally.

Unipolarity

See also: Hegemony

Unipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which there is one state with most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. This if different than hegemony since a hegemon may not have total control of the sea ports or "commons".

Examples of Unipolarity

A true unipolarity that has influence all over the known world is difficult to form prior to the Age of Discovery due to the lack of communication and information regarding other nations. Therefore, all the examples of this list, except the last two, are examples of regional unipolarity.

  • The Egyptan Empire, from 3150 BC to 664 BC (approximate dates, there was a slow break down of the kingdom in the end).
  • The Greeks, from 776 to 146 BC (In 332 BC the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight. and in 146 BC Greece was conquered by Rome and became part of the Roman Empire).
  • The Persian Empire from 550 BC to 330 BC - From Central Asia to Macedonia, including Northern Africa and South Asia.
  • The Roman Empire from 31 BC to the 5th century - Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia Minor.
  • Chinese Empires in the 1st century B.C.-3rd century A.D., 6th-8th century A.D., and 14th-18th century A.D. - Mainly China proper, at times stretching to as far as Central Asia, Mongolia, India and Southeast Asia.
  • Mongolian Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries - All across Asia and to Eastern Europe and Egypt.
  • The Byzantine Empire, 6th century onwards until its gradual decline and replacement by the Ottoman Empire - Eastern Europe, Northern Africa and Asia Minor, with influence reaching to as far as Spain at times. Exists as a bipolarity with the Western Roman Empire before its fall.
  • The Ottoman Empire, from the 15th to the 17th centuries - same as above.
  • The French Empire, during the reigns of Louis XIV and Napoleon I
  • The British Empire from the end of Napoleonic Wars - beginning of the 20th century
  • The United States; with the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States became the dominant military force in the world, along with considerable economic, cultural, and political influence.

Bipolarity

Bipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which two states have the majority of economic, military, and cultural influence internationally or regionally. Often, spheres of influence would develop. For example, in the Cold War, most Western and democratic states would fall under the influence of the USA, while most Communist states would fall under the influence of the USSR. After this, the two powers will normally maneuver for the support of the unclaimed areas.

This map shows two essential global spheres during the Cold War in 1959. Consult the legend on the map for more details.

Examples

Regional examples

Multi-state examples of Bipolarity

The bipolar system can be said to extend to much larger systems, such as alliances or organizations, which would not be considered nation-states, but would still have power concentrated in two primary groups.

In both World Wars, much of the world, and especially Europe, the United States and Japan had been divided into two respective spheres - one case being the Axis and Allies of World War II (1939-1945) - and the division of power between the Central Powers and Allied Powers during World War I (1914-1918). Neutral nations, however, may have caused what may be assessed as an example of tripolarity as well within both of the conflicts.

Multipolarity

Multipolarity in international politics describes a distribution of power in which more than four nation-states have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural, and economic influence.

Opinions on the stability of multipolarity differ. Classical realist theorists, such as Hans Morgenthau and E. H. Carr hold that multipolar systems are more stable than bipolar systems, as great powers can gain power through alliances and petty wars that do not directly challenge other powers; in bipolar systems, classical realists argue, this is not possible. On the other hand, the neorealist focus on security inverts the the formula: states in a multipolar system can focus their fears on any number of other powers and, misjudging the intentions of other states, unnecessarily compromise their security, while states in a bipolar system always focus their fears on one other power, meaning that at worst the powers will miscalculate the force required to counter threats and spend slightly too much on the operation. However, due to the complexity of mutually assured destruction scenarios, with nuclear weapons, multipolar systems may be more stable than bipolar systems even in the neorealist analysis.[citation needed] This system tends to have many shifting alliances until one of two things happens. Either a balance of power is struck, and neither side wants to attack the other, or one side will attack the other because it either fears the potential of the new alliance, or it feels that it can defeat the other side.

One of the major implications of an international system with any number of poles, including a multipolar system, is that international decisions will often be made for strategic reasons to maintain a balance of power rather than out of ideological or historical reasons.

The 'Concert of Europe,' a period from after the Napoleonic Wars to the Crimean War, was an example of peaceful multipolarity (the great powers of Europe assembled regularly to discuss international and domestic issues). World War I, World War II, the Thirty Years War, and the Warring States Period are all examples of a wartime multipolarity.

File:Nixon Mao 1972-02-29.png
Richard Nixon meets Mao Zedong

Multipolarity today

Those claiming that the world is multipolar fall into two main camps. A "superpower is something of the past" view holds that the USA and USSR in the Cold War were in fact superpowers, but argues that due to the complex economic interdependencies on the international scale and the creation of a global village, the concept of one or more states gaining enough power to claim superpower status is antiquated. The rival view is that even throughout the Cold War, neither the USA or the USSR were superpowers, but were actually dependent on the smaller states in their "spheres of influence."

While the US has a great deal of economic clout and has influenced the culture of many nations, their dependency on foreign investors and reliance on foreign trade have created a mutual economic dependency between developed and developing nations. According to those who believe the world is multipolar, this interdependency means the US can't be called a superpower as it isn't self-sufficient and relies on the global community to sustain its people's quality of life. These interdepencies also apply to diplomacy. Considering the complex state of world affairs and the military might of some developing nations, it has become increasingly difficult to engage in foreign policy if it is not supported by other nations. The diplomatic and economic factors that bind the global village together have created a state in which no nation or union can dominate the others.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

Nonpolarity

Nonpolarity refers to an international system with numerous centers of power; no one center of power dominates. Centers of power can be Nation-states, corporations, non-governmental organizations, terrorist groups, and such. Power is found in many hands and many places.[8]

Measuring the power concentration

The Correlates of War uses a systemic concentration of power formula to calculate the polarity of a given great power system. The formula was developed by J. David Singer et al. in 1972.[9]

Concentrationt =
  • Nt = the number of states in the great power system at time t
  • Sit = the proportion of power possessed by state i at time t (must be a decimal figure)
S = the proportion of power possessed
i = the state of which the proportion of control over the system's power is being measured
t = the time at which the concentration of resources (i.e. power) is being calculated
  • = the sum of the proportion of power possessed by all states in the great power system

The closer the resulting concentration is to zero, the more evenly divided power is. The closer to 1, the more concentrated power is. There is a general but not strict correlation between concentration and polarity. It is rare to find a result over 0.5, but a result between 0.4 and 0.5 usually indicates a unipolar system, while a result between 0.2 and 0.4 usually indicated a bipolar or multipolar system. Concentration can be plotted over time, so that the fluctuations and trends in concentration can be observed. concentration of power formula to calculate the polarity of a given great power system.

See also

Bibliography

  • Thompson, William R. On Global War: Historical-Structural Approaches to World Politics. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988, pp. 209-210.

References

  1. ^ "The Global list (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-10.
  2. ^ "Washington Post (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-10.
  3. ^ "Huffington Post (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  4. ^ "Globalpolicy.org (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  5. ^ "Townhall.com (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  6. ^ "A Times (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  7. ^ "Captol Hill Blue (No superpower)". Retrieved 2006-06-11.
  8. ^ Haass, Richard N. (May/June 2008). "The Age of Nonpolarity". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2008-08-05. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Mansfield, Edward D. (1993). "Concentration, Polarity, and the Distribution of Power". International Studies Quarterly. 37 (1): 105–128. doi:10.2307/2600833. Retrieved 2007-03-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

External links

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