Western Chalukya literature in Kannada

Territory of the Western Chalukyas in India (c. 1100 CE), their Hoysala feudatory and other neighbours

The Western Chalukya Empire (973–1200), in what is now southern India, produced a large body of literature in the Kannada language. This dynasty, which ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya dynasty for its theoretical relationship to the sixth century Chalukya dynasty of Badami. They are differentiated from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Kannada literature during this period consisted mostly of writings relating to the socio-religious development of the Jain faith. The earliest known writers of merit belonging to the Shaiva faith are from the Chalukya court. Jain writers in Kannada were numerous in the Chalukya court and most of the courtly textual production was in that language.

For a brief period (1157–1183), a dynasty of kings who had migrated from central India and served as a feudatory to the Chalukyas in the Karad-Bijapur region, the Kalachuris, annexed the Chalukyan capital Kalyani, forcing their overlords to make Annigeri in modern Dharwad district their capital. Under the patronage of the new dynasty, a unique and native form of poetic literature called Vachana literature proliferated. The beginnings of the Vachana poetic tradition however traces back to the early 11th century. Around 1187, the last Chalukya scion, Somesvara IV, overthrew the Kalachuris to regain control the royal city. But his efforts were in vain as other prominent Chalukya vassals, the Hoysalas of southern Karnataka and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri destroyed the remnants of the Chalukya armies forcing them to fade into history.

Writing Kannada literature in Sanskritic champu metres was popularised by the Chalukyan court poets. However, with the advent of the Veerashaiva movement in the mid 12th century, under the stewardship of the well-known social reformer Basavanna, poets favoured the native tripadi metre and free verse style for writing their poems. Hence, during the Chalukya-Kalachuri era, important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets, noblemen, royalty, ascetics and saints associated with monasteries but also by poets belonging to the lower strata of a rigid caste based society, including cobblers, weavers, cowherds and shepherds. The late 12th century Kannada poery is considered revolutionary in that it rejected the concept of court and king and produced literature that was closer to the spoken and sung form of the Kannada language. In addition to hundreds of male poets, over thiry women Vachana poets have been recorded from this period, some of who wrote alongside their husbands in the Veeashaiva enclave in Kalyani.

Kannada writings

Court literature

Late 10th century

Ranna, along with Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna is considered by historians K.A. Nilakanta Sastri and A.K. Warder as the "three gems of Kannada literature" was born in a family of bangle sellers (in Mudhol, modern Bagalkot district), and was the court poet of Western Chalukya empire's founding Kings Tailapa II and Satyasraya. He was also patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe and the Ganga minister Chavundaraya. Ranna is famous for writing Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in his magnum opus, the Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.

Unlike Pampa who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he coronates at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhana "a great person" (mahanubhava). Perhaps the most poignant piece of elegiac verse in all of ancient Kannada literature is one that describes the heart rendering lamentation of Duryodhana (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu. The dramatic effect given to the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature. Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest known dictionary in Kannada language called the Rannakanda (990), though only eleven verses of this writing has come down to us. His other notable writings are the Chakeresvaracharita and the Parashuramacharitha. The later writing (which is now lost), according to historian Suryanath Kamath, may have been a eulogy of the Ganga minsiter Chavundaraya, whom the poet immensely admired. For his contributions, Ranna was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron kings.

The other notable writer from the close of the 10th century was Nemichandra who wrote the Kaviraja kunjara and Lilavati (c. 990) with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura (modern Banavasi) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem. Other writers whose works have been praised by the Chalukya minister Durgasimha (1031) but whose writings are considered lost are Kavitavilasa, who was patronised by King Jayasimha II, Madiraja, Chadrabhatta and Manasija.

11th century

Chandraraja's Madanatilaka (1025), written in the champu metre, is the earliest in erotics in the language. The book is written as a dialogue between the patron and his wife, in posakannada, the most modern Kannada in usage at the time. He was under the patronage of Machiraja, feudatory of King Jayasimha II. Shridharacharya, a Jain Brahmin patronised by Somesvara I showed his ability to write on scientific subjects (Shastrakavita) in the Jatakatilaka (1049), the earliest writing on astrology (Sastra-kavitva) in Kannada and Chandraprabha Charite on belles-lettres (Kavya-Kavitva).

Chavundaraya II, a Brahmin Advaita-Shaiva by faith and protege of King Jayasimha II wrote Lokopakara (c. ) in the champu metre. It is the earliest available encyclopaedia in the Kannada language, written at times with a poetic touch. It comprises twelve chapters and has found popularity in later references as well. The work is on various topics such as, guide to daily life, astronomy, astrology and forecasting of events according to the Indian calendar (panchanga phala), sculpture, construction of buildings (vastu vichara) and reservoirs (udakargala), omens, divination of water, preparation of medicine from herbs and plants (vrikshayurveda), general medicine (vaidya), perfumes, cookery and toxicology (vishavaidya). Mentioned in this book is the art of preparing and shaping the popular South Indian delicacy Idli by soaking Urad dal (black gram) in butter milk, ground to a fine paste and mixed with the clear water of curd, and spices .

Durgasimha (1031), the minister of war and peace (Sandhi Vigrahi) under King Jayasimha II wrote Panchatantra ("The five strategems") in champu style, based on Gunadhya's original , Brihatkatha, written in Paishachi language. This rendering of the Panchatantra is the first of its kind in a vernacular language in India and an early example of a full fledged writing in the genre of fable in Kannada. Containing sixty fables in all, thirteen of which are original stories, each fable is summarised by an ethical moral based witha Jain element in it. Durgasimha also authored the Karnataka Banachatantra in which he gave a brief commentary on all the Sanskrit verses he quoted in the writing. This may be considered an early example of a commentary in Kannada.

Shantinatha who was patronised by King Somesvara II wrote the poem Sukumaracharita in 1068. The Brahmin Advaita saint Nagavarmacharya (1070) of Balipura (modern Balligavi), who was not only patronised by the King Udayatidya (but also claims to be his minister of war and peace), a feudatory of Chalukya King Somesvara II (also called Bhuvanaikamalla), wrote Chandra Chudamani Sataka. In the centum of verses, each of which ends with the term "Chandrachudamani", another name of the god Shiva, the author treats on viragya (ethics of renuncitation). Two writers from the second half of the 11th century whose works are considered lost but have been referenced in contemporary writings are Gunachandra and Gunavarma. Gunachandra, who was patronised by King Somesvara II wrote Parsvabhyudaya and Maghanadisvara. The 12th century writer Nayasena mentions that the patron king "worshipped the feet of Gunachandra". Gunavarma, who earned the honorific Bhuvanaika Vira, a title befiting a warrior rather than a poet is mentioned by grammarian Keshiraja of c. 1260 as the author of Harivamsa. His title identifies him with a Ganga prince called Udayaditya who was a minister and successful general under Chalukya Somesvara II (1069–1076). Other writings ascribed to the author are Pushpadanta Purana and Devachandra Prabha Stotra.

12th century

Nayasena, whose writings are dated by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to the 10th century and by R. Narasimhacharya to the c. 1112 by wrote Dharmamritha, a book containing among other accounts, fifteen stories that belong to the genre of fables and parables. Well known among these stories are "Yajnadatta and the mongoose", "Kapalika and the young elephant", "Serpant, tiger, monkey and the goldsmith who had fallen in the old well". The main theme in these stories is to teach about Jain tenets. The writing is one of intense self interrogation where the author critically examines the beliefs of all contemporeneous religions while decrying contamination from external influences in the original Jain beliefs, including the practice of violent and bloody rituals and the caste system.

The Jain writer Brahmashiva, who originally may have been a Shaiva (devotee of the god Shiva), earned the title Kavichakravarti from King Vikramaditya VI for his writing Samayaparikshe of c 1125. In this philosophical writing that contains touches of propagandist satire and humor the author seeks to prove the virtues of Jainsim as superior over all other contemporary religions. Brahmashiva portrays contemporary life and beliefs of the people of the Kannada speaking region and criticises the beliefs Hinduism, the conversion of a Jain temple in Kholapur orignally dedicated to the tirthankar Chandrapraba into a Hindu temple deifying the goddess Mahalakshmi, the existance religious cosmopolitanism within a household, where the husband, the wife and the children follow differing faiths. The author also expresses unhappiness over the eroding popularity of Jainism in southern India, a result of the rising popularity of Veerashaiva movement. Kirtivarma, younger brother of Vikramaditya VI wrote Govaidya the earliest writing in Kannada on veterinery science. The writing also is about medicine and magic. Karnaparya (1145) wrote on the life of 22nd Tirthankara in his Neminathapurana in champu style including details of the Mahabharata and Lord Krishna. Udayadityalankara (1150) is attributed to a Chola prince of those times who went by the name Udayaditya.

Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyanakaraka (1150), a translation of the Sanskrit writing Kalyanakaraka by Pujyapada is the earliest writing on medicine prescribing an entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic treatment. The exact dating of grammarian Nagavarma-II has been of much debate. Untill the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam (1042) written in Kannada by a author who goes by that very name, it was broadly accepted by scholars including E.P. Rice, R. Narasimhacharya and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that Nagavarma II was the poet laureate (Katakacharya) of the Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II around 1145. However, of late, scholars of the Sahitya Akademi, and Sheldon Pollock concur that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-11th century and was the poet laureate of Chalukya King Jayasimha II, who also goes by the epithet Jagadekamalla. Irrespective of when he lived, it is well accpeted that few scholars in the history of Kannada literature have made important contributions in as many subjects as Nagavarma II. His writings in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his many writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric, the Karnataka Bhashabhushana on grammar, and the Vastukosa on lexicography giving Kannada equivalents of Sanskrit words are important. Kannada poet Govinda Pai has proposed that the author of Karnataka Bhashabhushana was a different Nagavarma who belonged to the mid-12th century.

Inscribed handwriting of poet Ranna (c. 982 CE) reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola

Bhakti literature

11th century

The beginnings of the Vachana poetry (called Vachana Sahitya or "Vachana literature", and sometimes, Sharana Sahitya or "literature of the devotees"), a unique and native form of expression in free verse (a prose-poem that could be sung or recited) in the Kannada language can be traced back to the 11th century. The meteoric rise of the popularity of the Veerashaiva movement and the Vachana poems in general, in a caste ridden 12th century Karnataka has special significance, in that, it involved poets who were commoners from the lower strata of soceity, hitherto been denied access to even basic literacy. The essense of the movement and the resulting Vachana poems was the rejection of temple based ritual worship, Sanskritic texts and scriptures, while encouraging the search for inner truth. The followers of the faith prayed not to a conventional image of a god but rather wore a linga (the universal symbol of the god Shiva, made of stone) on their body.

Names of three Vachana poets (called Vachanakaras) from the early period and some of their poems are available. Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler-saint, who is considered by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry", was held in high esteem by later day Vachana poets of the 12th century. 12th century poet-saint Basavanna even wrote of Chennaiah as his "father". Only 10 of Chennaiah's poems are extant today. Dohara Kakkaiah is the second poet. A dalit by birth, his 6 extant poems are confessional in nature, a theme seen in the later poems of Basavanna as well. Devara Dasimaiah (or Jedara Dasimaiah) is better known and a considerable number of his poems are available. Numbering about 150, his poems set the trend encouraging monotheistic belief in God Shiva. Embedded in his deft and concise poems are proverbs and metaphors. Dasimaiah's wife Duggale perhaps qualifies as Kannada's first women poet, though only a few poems written by his wife Duggale, who qualifes as the first women Vachana poet are available.

12th century

In the late 12th century, the Kalachuris successfully rebelled against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed the capital Kalyani. During this short and turbulent period lasting little over three decades (the Kalachuris assumed independence in c. 1153 but faded from history in c. 1183), a new religious faith called Veerashaivism (or Lingayatism) developed as a revolt against the existing social order of Hindu society. Some of the followers of this faith wrote poems expressing their mystic experiences. Basavanna (or Basava, 1131–1169), a social reformer and the prime minister of Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement. Allama Prabhu, Chennabasava, Siddharama, Akka Mahadevi, and Kondugoli Keshiraja are the other well-known poets among more than three hundred poets (called vachanakaras) in this genre. A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems which were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato.

12th century social reformer and Kannada poet, Basavanna

Though born of Brahmin parents (in Basavana Bagewadi in modern Bijapur district), Basavanna rejected the ritual thread ceremony (upanayanam) and spearheaded this new faith which taught absolute devotion towards the god Shiva. The life of Basavanna marks a milestone in the history of what is now Karnataka state, India. A towering personality, his zeal and socio-cultural achievements in the realm of peace and equality of mankind brought about enduring changes in society. Information about his life and achievements come from the many Kannada writings, the earliest of which were written just after his death. 12th century Hoysala poet Harihara's Basavarajdevara ragale is the first known biography on Basavanna, Vijayanagara poet Bhima Kavi's Basavapurana and poet Singiraja's Amala Basavacharite of the 14th and 16th century respectively, and 15th century Vijayanagara minister Lakkanna Dandesa's Shiva Tatwachintamani are some of the important sources of his life history. The cornerstone of Basavanna's philosophy were "work-worship is heaven", and the rejection of mere worship of God. Basavanna strongly advocated a life of complete commitment to vocation. As a poet, he finds a pride of place in Kannada literature. His deftly written poems, 1300 of which have survivied, have been described by Shiva Prakash H.S., a scholar on medieval Kannada literature, as lyrical, satirical, deeply contemplative and self critical. Above all, his poems convey his deep devotion to the god Shiva. In one satirical poem, Basavanna decries the hypocracy of a snake charmer and his wife, who on their way to find a bride for their son cancel the journey when they come across a bad omen—another snake charmer and his wife.

Allama, also known as Allama Prabhu (lit, "Allama the master") was a mendicant saint-poet who took to the path of ascetism after the untimely death of his wife Kamalate. He was born into a family of hereditery temple performers (and was himself an expert on the drum, called maddale), in Balligavi, a town of great antiquity (in modern Shivamogga district, Karnataka state). Striken by the grief of his wife's death and wandering around, he came across a saint called Animisayya who initiated him into ascetism. Ascribed to Allama are 1321 poems, each of which end with the term "Guhesvara" (lit, "Lord of the Cave"), for it is said Allama found enlightenment in a cave. Allama's cryptic poems, though full of kindness, are known for their satire, mockery, invective and rejection of occult powers (siddhis). H.S. Shiva Prakash compares Allama's poems to the Koans (riddles) used in Japanese Zen poetry. While Basavanna's zeal and influence that led to the formation and popularity of the Veerashaiva movement in Kalyani, the royal capital, it was however Allama who was the undisputed spiritual authority who presided over the gatherings at the Anubhava mantapa. A well-known 15th century Kannada writer, Chamarasa, a champion of the Veerashaiva faith in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II wrote the Prabhulinga Lile (1430), a eulogy of Allama's preachings and achievements; it was translated into Telugu and Tamil language at the behest of his patron king, and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages. In the story, the Allama is considered an incarnation of the Hindu god Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi. Another notable Veerashaiva anthology called the Sunyasampadane ("The achievement of nothingness") was compiled around the life of this saint and gives useful details about his interaction with contemporary saints.

Basavanna's nephew, Chennabasava, is more popular as a strategist and a theologian, who apart from authoring some notable and lengthy Vachana poems wrote on yogic experiences in a book called Mantragopya. He is also known to have been the manager of the Veerashiava gatherings and the Mahamane ("great house") of Basavanna. Credited to Siddharama, an influential devotee and a native of Sonnalige (modern Sholapur, Maharashtra state) are devotional writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems). His poems, influenced of Basavanna, convey his rejection of blind beliefs, the caste system, and sexual descrimination.

Prominent among the thirty-three women poets was Akka Mahadevi. Born into a merchant family in Udatadi (or Udugani) near the ancient city of Banavasi (Uttara Kannada district) and possibly married against her wishes to a feudal chief called Kausika, she renounced all wordly pleasures in favor of one of devotion and the path of ascetism. She is often compared to such notable female saint-poets of Hinduism as Andal, Lalleswari and Meera Bai, and is accepted to be one of the most prominent female poets of the Kannada language. Not much is known about her, the 430 short poems written by her, in a language that describes her deep love for her devine lover, the god Mallikarjuna, and the 15th century anthology, the Sunyasampadane being the main sources of information about her from the medieval era. Her poetry is characterised by her scorn for wordly pocessions and her detachedment from wordly affairs. An apt poem from her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cacoon around itself, making it impossible to extricate itself and eventually dies in it—the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads to wordly desires. In a poem full of puns, the poet prays that her god Mallikarjuna (also called Channa Mallikarjuna) , whom she describes as the "Lord of fragrant Jasmines", may cut through the cacoon of desires so she may emancipate like a butterfly. In addition to poetry she is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi, the latter written in the native tripadi metre describes the various stages of spiritual enlightenment. Tradition has it that Akka Mahadevi preferred to wear no clothes, renunciation which in her own description was the "most exalted spiritual state". She died while still in her twenties, in a plantain grove, in the holy city of Srisailam (in modern Andhra Pradesh).

The Vachana writers of this period came varied backgrounds and most commonly from the lower strata of soceity. The literary freedom they enjoyed resulted in many poems being written, a tradition that has been alive even in the modern period. Some notable 12th century writers were Molige Maraiah, a wood cutter, Madivala Machayya, a washerman, Ambigere Chowdiah, a ferryman, Vaidya Sanganna, a doctor, Madara Dhooliah, a cobbler, Hendada Mariah, a toddy tapper, Turugahi Ramanna, a cowherd, Aydakki Maraiah, a rice gatherer, Nubiya Chaudaiah, a rope maker, Kannadi Remmitande, a mirror maker, Vokkaliga Muddanna, a farmer, Revanna Siddha, a shepard and Marulasiddha, an untouchable. Inscriptions mention a Bahurupi Chaudayya who was well known for his histrionic talent while reciting his poems and Mokari Baramayya who is described as a "Brahma" (creator) of all arts with knowledge and talent in singing, dancing and playing musical instruments. Several women poets whose poems are no less impressive than those of Akka Mahadevi's, are identified. Basavanna's sister Nagalambike and his two wives, Gangambike and Neelambike were well-known, though Neelambike seems to have been more prolific. Some owere wives of male poets in the Veerashaiva congragation. Satyakka, whose poems compare in quality to those of Akka Mahadevi, Lakkamma, Kelavve, a dalit women whose poems scorned at the upper caste people, Ketaladevi, Guddavve (the wife of a comb-maker), Mahadevi and Lingamma, poets who wrote in a mystic language, Amuge Rayamma and Akkamma dont spare the hypocracy of religious pretences, Kadire Remavva, a spinner, who employed a unique form of cryptic language called bedagu, Muktayakka, who even debated with the patron saint Allama himself, and even a princess called Bontadevi.

With the intent of challenging the very core of the caste base society, the Sharanas conducted a pratiloma-marriage (marraige between a upper caste Brahmin bride and a lower caste Shudra groom). The resulting conforntation between rebellious Sharanas and the conservative upper classes lead to the assassination of King Bijjala II and the eviction of most Sharanas, including Basavanna, from Kalyani. Though these turbulent events caused a setback to the Veerashaiva gatherings and creation of poems, the movement had however set its roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Sanskrit writings

12th century Kannada female poet, Akka Mahadevi

The Chalukya rulers of Kalyani gave encouragement to Sanskrit scholars. Famous among them were the Jain scholar Vadiraja who wrote Yashodharacharitam, Parshvanatha Charitam, Nyayavinishchayatika, a commentary on Akalankas called Nyayavinishchaya, two epics and a writing on logic called Pramanathraya.Kashmiri poet Bilhana immortalized the name of his patron Vikramaditya VI through his Vikramankadeva Charitha. Vijnaneshwara achieved fame by writing Asaucadasaka and Mitakshara a book on Hindu law.

Somesvara III was a great scholar and complied an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa (also known as Abhilashithartha Chintamani, 1130). Vidyamadhava patronised by Somesvara III wrote Parvati Rukminiya where each verse carries two meanings, one narrates the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati while the other, the marriage of Lord Krishna and Rukmini. Kaviraja Madhava Bhatta in the court of Kadamba Kamadeva wrote Raghava Pandaviya, a narration of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and Parijataharana in ten cantos on a well known episode from the legends of Lord Krishna. A student of Vijnaneshwara called Narayana wrote an independent digest on civil law called Vyavaharasiromani which is only partially available. Jagadhekamalla II wrote Sangithachudamani a work on music in five chapters, Parashvadeva patronised by King Somesvara III wrote Sangithasamayasara, Mitasagara and Dayapala were two well known scholars who wrote Rupasiffhi

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