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{{Chinese name|[[Yuan (surname)|Yuan]]}}
{{Chinese name|[[Yuan (surname)|Yuan]]}}
[[Image:Yuan Chonghuan.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Yuan Chonghuan]]
[[Image:Yuan Chonghuan.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Yuan Chonghuan]]
'''Yuan Chonghuan''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|袁|崇|煥}}|s=袁崇焕|p=Yuán Chónghuàn|j=Yun4 Sung4 Wun6}}; [[style name]]: Yuánsù 元素 and Zìrú 自如; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630) was a famed patriot and military commander of the [[Ming Dynasty]] who battled the [[Manchu]]s in [[Liaoning]].<ref name="asiatimes10-08-04">{{cite news|title=Cantonese cultural warriors fight back|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html|publisher=Asia Times|date=2010-08-04|accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref> He was of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] origin,[[Yuan Chonghuan]] was known to have excelled in artillery warfare and successfully incorporated western tactics into the East. Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated [[Nurhaci]] and the Manchurian army in the first [[Battle of Ningyuan]]. [[Nurhaci]]'s son and successor, [[Huang Taiji|Huáng Táijí]], with 200,000 mostly mongol soldiers was also defeated by him in the second [[Battle of Ningyuan]]. However, Yuan was a tragic figure, and was executed by his emperor under false charges which Huang Taiji deliberately planted against him.
'''Yuan Chonghuan''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|袁|崇|煥}}|s=袁崇焕|p=Yuán Chónghuàn|j=Yun4 Sung4 Wun6}}; [[style name]]: Yuánsù {{linktext|元|素}} and Zìrú {{linktext|自|如}}; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630) was a famed patriot and military commander of the [[Ming Dynasty]] who battled the [[Manchu]]s in [[Liaoning]].<ref name="asiatimes10-08-04">{{cite news|title=Cantonese cultural warriors fight back|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html|publisher=Asia Times|date=2010-08-04|accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref> A commander of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] origin, Yuan Chonghuan was known to have excelled in artillery warfare and successfully incorporated [[Western world|Western]] tactics with those of the East. Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated [[Nurhaci]] and the Manchu army in the first [[Battle of Ningyuan]]. Later, Yuan also managed to defeat Nurhaci's son and successor, [[Huang Taiji]], and his 200,000 mostly Mongol soldiers. However, Yuan was eventually tortured and executed by the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] under false charges which Huang Taiji is believed to have deliberately planted against him.


==Early life==
==Early life==
Yuan Chonghuan was born in [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]]. During his adolescence, Yuan spent time travelling from town to town, and befriended many Jesuits and foreigners along the way. Although he took the imperial examinations repeatedly with little success, on his journeys to the capital he was able to see far more than the average examiners could see. Some say that he befriended westerners during this time, and together they spent time modifying European cannons.
Yuan Chonghuan was born in [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]]. During his adolescence, Yuan spent time traveling from town to town, and befriended many [[Jesuits]] and foreigners along the way. Although he took the [[imperial examinations]] repeatedly with little success, he saw and experienced much on his journeys to the capital. It is said that he befriended several westerners during this time and spent much time modifying European cannons.


==Early military career==
==Early military career==
He passed the imperial examinations in 1619 and was appointed to the minor post of magistrate in a remote place. In 1619, the imperial Ming army was very badly defeated by the Manchus in the [[Battle of Sarhu]]. Subsequently, the Chinese armies suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to [[Shanhaiguan District|Shanhaiguan]], abandoning all of Liaoning to the Manchus. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed second-class secretary in the Board of War, then promoted almost immediately to secretary, and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. (Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the imperial examinations.)
He passed the imperial examinations in 1619 and was appointed to the minor post of magistrate in a remote place. In 1619, the imperial Ming army was defeated by the Manchus in the [[Battle of Sarhu]]. The Chinese armies suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to [[Shanhaiguan District|Shanhaiguan]], abandoning all of Liaoning to the Manchus. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed second-class secretary on the Board of War, then promoted almost immediately to secretary and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. (Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the imperial examinations.)


Yuan Chonghuan worked harmoniously with the commander-in-chief [[Sun Chengzong]] (孫承宗) and pushed the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying [[Xingcheng|Ningyuan]] (寧遠) in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe the Emperor's eunuch. Consequently, in 1625 Sun was recalled and replaced by [[Gao Di]] (高第), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhaiguan, but Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.
Yuan Chonghuan worked harmoniously with the commander-in-chief [[Sun Chengzong]] (孫承宗) and pushed the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying [[Xingcheng|Ningyuan]] (寧遠) in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe the [[Tianqi Emperor|Emperor]]'s eunuch. Consequently,Sun was recalled in 1625 and replaced by [[Gao Di]] (高第), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhaiguan. However, Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.


Early in the next year, [[Nurhaci]] led the Manchus back across the [[Liao River]]. Yuan Chonghuan and his Deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly-mounted and modified "red-barbarian cannon" (紅衣大炮, 紅夷大炮), and only 9,000 soldiers (mostly militia) against Nurhaci's 130,000 (some estimates say 200,000). This battle was remembered as the [[Battle of Ningyuan]], as it prevented China from being conquered and boosted the hopes of Ming and its allies that the Manchurians might be defeated.
Early in the next year, [[Nurhaci]] led the Manchus back across the [[Liao River]]. Yuan Chonghuan and his deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly-mounted and modified "red-barbarian cannon" (紅衣大炮, 紅夷大炮), and only 9,000 soldiers (mostly militia) against Nurhaci's 130,000 (some estimates say 200,000). The [[Battle of Ningyuan|victory at Ningyuan]] prevented China from being conquered and boosted the hopes of Ming and its allies that the Manchus might be defeated.


It is noted that Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is the reason why the Manchurian Emperor Nurhaci, even though well protected by his elite guards in a relatively safe position, was wounded. It is said that after the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as what traditionally Chinese generals would do, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him a faker.
It is noted that Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is given as the reason why the Manchu ruler Nurhaci, although well-protected by his elite guards in a safe position, was wounded by cannon fire. It is said that after the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as traditionally done by Chinese generals, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him a faker.


As a result of this victory, the Imperial Court at [[Beijing]] appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.
As a result of this victory, the Imperial Court at [[Beijing]] appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.


During this time, he executed [[Mao Wenlong|Máo Wénlóng]] (毛文龍), a quite ruthless and somewhat talented commander. Various texts have different perspectives of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Máo could still be used to defend against the Manchus. However, Yuan took into account how Máo ran his battles: Máo's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation civilians suffered tremendously. Máo's also used Korea &mdash; Ming's ally &mdash; as a base to attack Manchuria, and when the Manchus entered Korea, Máo ordered a general retreat. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area since Máo had never dared to drag major cities into war, even when there was a strategic advantage. In addition, Máo had bribed many eunuchs and corrupt officials. Thus, Yuan made enemies with the most influential and corrupt people in China.
During this time, he executed [[Mao Wenlong]] (毛文龍), a Ming commander regarded as ruthless but talented. Various texts have different opinions of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Mao could still be used against the Manchus. However, Yuan took into account how Mao ran his battles: Mao's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation the civilians suffered tremendously. Mao also used Korea &mdash; Ming's ally &mdash; as a base to launch expeditions against Manchuria. When the Manchus entered Korea, Mao ordered a general retreat of Ming forces. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area who traded in the [[Korean Peninsula]]. In addition, Mao was known to bribe many corrupt eunuchs and officials. Consequently, by executing Mao, Yuan made enemies with some of the most influential and corrupt people in China.


Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied [[Jinzhou]]. The Manchus reappeared in June and withdrew after a series of indecisive battles. (Note: This is known as the Battle of Ningyuan-Jinzhou or the Second Battle of Ningyuan.) Yuan was criticised by the partisans of the eunuch official [[Wei Zhongxian|Wèi Zhōngxián]], stating that he took too long to fight off the "barbarian" Manchurians, and shortly thereafter Yuan retired.
Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied [[Jinzhou]]. The Manchus reappeared in June and withdrew after a series of indecisive battles. (Note: This is known as the Battle of Ningyuan-Jinzhou or the Second Battle of Ningyuan.) Yuan was criticised by the partisans of the eunuch official [[Wei Zhongxian|Wèi Zhōngxián]], who stated that he took too long to fight off the "barbarian" Manchus. Shortly thereafter Yuan was forced into retirement.


==Later military career and death==
==Later military career and death==
In 1628, under a new government, Yuan Chonghuan was reinstated as field marshal of all the forces of the northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five year plan for the complete recovery of Liaodong. A new [[Chongzhen Emperor]] had taken the reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan Chonghuan. In 1629 Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The Chongzhen Emperor gave him his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.
In 1628, under the new government, Yuan Chonghuan was reinstated as field marshal of all the forces of the Northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five-year plan for the complete recovery of Liaodong. The [[Chongzhen Emperor]] had taken the reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan Chonghuan. In 1629 Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The Chongzhen Emperor gave him his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.


This time Yuan had to face again a larger Manchurian force (slightly above 200,000) under Huang Taiji. This time the Manchurians had incorporated many more men including the newly surrendered Mongols, rebel Ming army and the conquered Korea and various small states of the North. However, the Manchus were not confident enough to attack Jinzhou or Ningyuan again.
This time Yuan had to face again a larger Manchu force of over 200,000 troops under Huang Taiji. The Manchus had incorporated more men in their army, including the newly surrendered Mongols, Ming rebels, conquered Korea, and various small tribes of the North. However, the Manchus were reluctant to attack Jinzhou or Ningyuan and never did so again.


The Manchus changed their strategy. They bypassed Jinzhou, Ningyuan and Shanhai Pass. They broke through the Great Hall west of Shanhai Pass and suddenly appeared north of Beijing in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with an elite army from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Manchus. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Manchurian "[[Eight Banners]]" (八旗) which numbered one hundred thousand. (Note: The Manchus failed to destroy the Imperial Ming army at the city wall of Beijing and thus failed to launch a direct assault on the city wall. Thus the Manchus failed in their main objective of launching a surprise attack on Beijing. Yuan's army was not strong enough to destroy the Manchu army. He only managed to make the Manchus fail in their main objective.) But far from being fêted, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy. In fact, they were actually tricked by Huang Taiji into thinking that Yuan had betrayed them.
The Manchus changed their strategy. Bypassing Jinzhou, Ningyuan and Shanhai Pass, they broke through the Great Wall west of Shanhai Pass with the help of General [[Wu Sangui]] and reached north of Beijing in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with an elite army from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Manchus. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Manchurian "[[Eight Banners]]" (八旗) which numbered around 100,000 men, but failed to destroy the Manchu army. The Manchus' surprise attack on Beijing was foiled. Despite the fact that Yuan prevented the Manchus from even reaching the city wall, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy. In fact, they were actually tricked by Huang Taiji into thinking that Yuan had betrayed them.


The Chongzhen Emperor ordered his arrest during an interview with the Emperor on 13 January 1630. Without much evidence, he was accused of collusion with the enemy and condemned to the "[[Slow slicing|death by a thousand cuts]]" at Ganshiqiao (甘石橋) in [[Beijing]]. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard [[Liaodong]]." (一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊保遼東！) His family was resettled.
The Chongzhen Emperor ordered Yuan's arrest during an audience with the Emperor on 13 January 1630. Despite little evidence, he was accused of collusion with the enemy and condemned to death by "[[slow slicing]]" at Ganshiqiao (甘石橋) in [[Beijing]]. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard [[Liaodong]]." (一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊保遼東！)


Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in Korea; with his death many regarded that Ming and its allies were highly vulnerable.<ref>[http://www.bjmem.com/bjm/bjwh/rwdl/200711/P020071117533094217342.pdf 程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記]</ref>
Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon Korea]]. After his death, many regarded the Ming and its allies as extremely vulnerable to Manchu invasion.<ref>[http://www.bjmem.com/bjm/bjwh/rwdl/200711/P020071117533094217342.pdf 程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記]</ref>


It was said that because of his "betrayal", many Beijing citizens hated him so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day and then stopped.<ref>計六奇. ''明季北略'', vol.5</ref> His head, the only recognizable part after the torture, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname is She, and buried near Guanqu Men. The guard's family have guarded it from one generation to the next ever since.<ref>[http://www.southcn.com/weekend/top/200205230055.htm 372年守墓史曲終人散]</ref> His tomb was recently renovated to become the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial .
It was said that upon hearing of his apparent "betrayal", many Beijing residents hated him so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day before stopping.<ref>計六奇. ''明季北略'', vol.5</ref> His head, the only recognizable part after the torture, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname is She, and buried near Guanqu Men. The guard's family have guarded it for generations since.<ref>[http://www.southcn.com/weekend/top/200205230055.htm 372年守墓史曲終人散]</ref> His tomb was recently renovated to become the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial .


Huang Taiji publicly stated that he would never be able to beat Yuan in a fair game, thus, making the Chongzhen Emperor kill him was the only method to get rid of him. Just as the message of Yuan's death reach Huang Taiji's ears, he changed his state name from Jin to Qing and proclaimed himself Emperor Qing Taizong. Some historical information states that Huang Taiji feared Yuan's last word stating his soul will always guard Liaodong Peninsula: As the name Chonghuan, means Undying Flames, contains the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|element]] "Fire", he put the word Qing, meaning cleanse, which contains the element "Water", to overcome it; however, even if this is the case, the main reason is probably because the "Ming" of the [[Ming Dynasty]] contains the element "Fire" itself.
Huang Taiji publicly stated that he would never be able to beat Yuan in a fair game, thus having the Chongzhen Emperor kill him was the only method to get rid of him. Just as the message of Yuan's death reach Huang Taiji's ears, he changed his dynasty's name from Jin to [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] and proclaimed himself Emperor Qing Taizong. Historical records state that Huang Taiji feared Yuan's last words that his soul would always guard Liaodong Peninsula. Some say to overcome Yuan Chonghuan, whose name means "Undying Flames" (which contains the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|element]] of Fire), he had his dynasty name changed to Qing, meaning "to cleanse", which contains the Chinese element of "Water".


==Popular culture==
==Popular culture==
Although history states that his entire family was resettled, it is mentioned in [[Jin Yong]]'s ''[[Wuxia]]'' novel [[Sword Stained with Royal Blood]] (碧血劍) that Yuan is survived by his son, Yuan Chengzhi. As the protagonist of the novel, Yuan learns amazing martial arts on [[Mount Hua]] and vows to avenge his father's death. Jin Yong also put forward a theory by some other historians that it was the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], not Huang Taiji, that had Yuan Chonghuan killed, and that the Chongzhen Emperor knew perfectly well that Yuan was not a traitor. As in the case of [[Yue Fei]], Jin Yong proposed that the cause of Yuan's death was the Chongzhen Emperor's fear of his popularity with the people and of his disrespect of the throne.
Although history states that his entire family was resettled, it is said in [[Jin Yong]]'s ''[[wuxia]]'' novel [[Sword Stained with Royal Blood]] (碧血劍) that Yuan was survived by his son, Yuan Chengzhi. As the protagonist of the novel, Yuan learns martial arts on [[Mount Hua]] and vows to avenge his father's death. Jin Yong also put forward a theory by some other historians that it was the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], not Huang Taiji, that had Yuan Chonghuan killed, and that the Chongzhen Emperor knew perfectly well that Yuan was innocent. As in the case of [[Yue Fei]], Jin Yong proposed that the cause of Yuan's death was the Chongzhen Emperor's fear of his popularity with the people and his disrespect of the throne.


Yuan Chonghuan's name was conclusively cleared about 100 years after his death by the [[Qianlong Emperor]], after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Imperial Qing court. Qianlong tried to show off his unusual kindness by searching for Yuan's direct descendants for reward, though none could be found.
Yuan Chonghuan's name was cleared nearly a century later by the [[Qianlong Emperor]], after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Imperial Qing court supporting his innocence. Qianlong tried to express his kindness by searching and rewarding for Yuan's direct descendants, but failed to find any of them.


Apart from the novel as stated above, there are various other books have been written on him. Various TV dramas or films have been made in his honor.
Apart from the novel as stated above, there are various other books have been written on him. Various TV dramas or films have been made in his memory.


During the [[2010 controversy over proposed increase of adoption of Standard Mandarin by Guangzhou Television|2010 Pro-Cantonese Rally]], protesters in an obscene chant that had been the Yuan's battle cry against his [[Manchu]] counterpart in the [[Battle of Ningyuan]]: 掉哪妈! 顶硬上! (trad: 掉哪媽! 頂硬上!) - ''"Fuck his mom! Hit them hard!"''<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html Cantonese cultural warriors fight back]</ref>
During the [[2010 controversy over proposed increase of adoption of Standard Mandarin by Guangzhou Television|2010 pro-Cantonese rally]], protesters in an obscene chant that had been the Yuan's battle cry against his [[Manchu]] counterpart in the [[Battle of Ningyuan]]: 掉哪妈! 顶硬上! (trad: 掉哪媽! 頂硬上!) - ''"Fuck his mom! Hit them hard!"''<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/LH04Ad01.html Cantonese cultural warriors fight back]</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==
Line 50: Line 50:


==See also==
==See also==
⚫
*[[Yue Fei]]
*[[Zu Dashou]]
*[[Zu Dashou]]
*[[Wu Sangui]]
*[[Wu Sangui]]
*[[Chongzhen Emperor]]
*[[Hong Chengchou]]
*[[Hong Chengchou]]
*[[Huang Taiji]]
⚫
*[[Nurhaci]]
*[[Tianqi Emperor]]
*[[Man Gui]]
*[[Man Gui]]
*[[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]
*[[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]

Revision as of 01:15, 30 August 2011

Template:Chinese name

Yuan Chonghuan

Yuan Chonghuan (simplified Chinese: 袁崇焕; traditional Chinese: 袁崇煥; pinyin: Yuán Chónghuàn; Jyutping: Yun4 Sung4 Wun6; style name: Yuánsù 元素 and Zìrú 自如; 6 June 1584 – 22 September 1630) was a famed patriot and military commander of the Ming Dynasty who battled the Manchus in Liaoning.[1] A commander of Cantonese origin, Yuan Chonghuan was known to have excelled in artillery warfare and successfully incorporated Western tactics with those of the East. Yuan's military career reached its height when he defeated Nurhaci and the Manchu army in the first Battle of Ningyuan. Later, Yuan also managed to defeat Nurhaci's son and successor, Huang Taiji, and his 200,000 mostly Mongol soldiers. However, Yuan was eventually tortured and executed by the Chongzhen Emperor under false charges which Huang Taiji is believed to have deliberately planted against him.

Early life

Yuan Chonghuan was born in Dongguan, Guangdong. During his adolescence, Yuan spent time traveling from town to town, and befriended many Jesuits and foreigners along the way. Although he took the imperial examinations repeatedly with little success, he saw and experienced much on his journeys to the capital. It is said that he befriended several westerners during this time and spent much time modifying European cannons.

Early military career

He passed the imperial examinations in 1619 and was appointed to the minor post of magistrate in a remote place. In 1619, the imperial Ming army was defeated by the Manchus in the Battle of Sarhu. The Chinese armies suffered successive defeats and in 1622 they were forced to retreat to Shanhaiguan, abandoning all of Liaoning to the Manchus. After a visit to the front, Yuan was appointed second-class secretary on the Board of War, then promoted almost immediately to secretary and supplied with funds for enlisting troops. (Yuan's rapid promotion was quite notable as he did not have any formal military training at all, save for studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the imperial examinations.)

Yuan Chonghuan worked harmoniously with the commander-in-chief Sun Chengzong (孫承宗) and pushed the frontiers steadily northward, fortifying Ningyuan (寧遠) in 1623. The elderly Sun was an able commander but refused to bribe the Emperor's eunuch. Consequently,Sun was recalled in 1625 and replaced by Gao Di (高第), who ordered a general retreat to Shanhaiguan. However, Yuan flatly refused to leave Ningyuan.

Early in the next year, Nurhaci led the Manchus back across the Liao River. Yuan Chonghuan and his deputies successfully held Ningyuan with the newly-mounted and modified "red-barbarian cannon" (紅衣大炮, 紅夷大炮), and only 9,000 soldiers (mostly militia) against Nurhaci's 130,000 (some estimates say 200,000). The victory at Ningyuan prevented China from being conquered and boosted the hopes of Ming and its allies that the Manchus might be defeated.

It is noted that Yuan was said to have studied every aspect of the cannon for it to fire accurately at the position he wanted, and this is given as the reason why the Manchu ruler Nurhaci, although well-protected by his elite guards in a safe position, was wounded by cannon fire. It is said that after the battle, Yuan sent letters to ask the well-being of Nurhaci, as traditionally done by Chinese generals, but Nurhaci returned an insult by calling him a faker.

As a result of this victory, the Imperial Court at Beijing appointed Yuan as the Governor of Liaodong on 27 February 1626, with full authority to handle all forces outside the passes.

During this time, he executed Mao Wenlong (毛文龍), a Ming commander regarded as ruthless but talented. Various texts have different opinions of his actions. Many stated this was a mistake since Mao could still be used against the Manchus. However, Yuan took into account how Mao ran his battles: Mao's tactics usually involved using civilian settlements as a shield for his troops, and during the occupation the civilians suffered tremendously. Mao also used Korea — Ming's ally — as a base to launch expeditions against Manchuria. When the Manchus entered Korea, Mao ordered a general retreat of Ming forces. This angered many merchants in the Beijing area who traded in the Korean Peninsula. In addition, Mao was known to bribe many corrupt eunuchs and officials. Consequently, by executing Mao, Yuan made enemies with some of the most influential and corrupt people in China.

Taking advantage of Nurhaci's death later in the year, Yuan reoccupied Jinzhou. The Manchus reappeared in June and withdrew after a series of indecisive battles. (Note: This is known as the Battle of Ningyuan-Jinzhou or the Second Battle of Ningyuan.) Yuan was criticised by the partisans of the eunuch official Wèi Zhōngxián, who stated that he took too long to fight off the "barbarian" Manchus. Shortly thereafter Yuan was forced into retirement.

Later military career and death

In 1628, under the new government, Yuan Chonghuan was reinstated as field marshal of all the forces of the Northeast. He embarked on an ambitious five-year plan for the complete recovery of Liaodong. The Chongzhen Emperor had taken the reign in 1627 at the age of 16, and in 1629 (at the age of 18) he appointed Yuan Chonghuan. In 1629 Yuan was granted the title of "Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent". The Chongzhen Emperor gave him his Imperial Sword and stated that he would fully support Yuan's decisions.

This time Yuan had to face again a larger Manchu force of over 200,000 troops under Huang Taiji. The Manchus had incorporated more men in their army, including the newly surrendered Mongols, Ming rebels, conquered Korea, and various small tribes of the North. However, the Manchus were reluctant to attack Jinzhou or Ningyuan and never did so again.

The Manchus changed their strategy. Bypassing Jinzhou, Ningyuan and Shanhai Pass, they broke through the Great Wall west of Shanhai Pass with the help of General Wu Sangui and reached north of Beijing in the winter of 1629. Yuan rushed back with an elite army from Ningyuan to defend the capital. He reached Beijing just days before the Manchus. Outside the city wall of Beijing, he defeated the Manchurian "Eight Banners" (八旗) which numbered around 100,000 men, but failed to destroy the Manchu army. The Manchus' surprise attack on Beijing was foiled. Despite the fact that Yuan prevented the Manchus from even reaching the city wall, Yuan was heavily criticized when he arrived in Beijing, and some eunuchs even accused Yuan of collaborating with the enemy. In fact, they were actually tricked by Huang Taiji into thinking that Yuan had betrayed them.

The Chongzhen Emperor ordered Yuan's arrest during an audience with the Emperor on 13 January 1630. Despite little evidence, he was accused of collusion with the enemy and condemned to death by "slow slicing" at Ganshiqiao (甘石橋) in Beijing. When Yuan was asked for last words before his execution, he produced the poem: "A life's work always ends up in vain; half of my career seems to be in dreams. I do not worry about lacking brave warriors after my death, for my loyal spirit will continue to guard Liaodong." (一生事業總成空，半世功名在夢中。死後不愁無將勇，忠魂依舊保遼東！)

Yuan was mourned throughout most of the country outside Beijing and even in Joseon Korea. After his death, many regarded the Ming and its allies as extremely vulnerable to Manchu invasion.[2]

It was said that upon hearing of his apparent "betrayal", many Beijing residents hated him so much that they rushed to buy his body parts so they could eat them. He was left there after the torture, shouting for half a day before stopping.[3] His head, the only recognizable part after the torture, was taken outside the Inner City Wall by a city guard, whose surname is She, and buried near Guanqu Men. The guard's family have guarded it for generations since.[4] His tomb was recently renovated to become the Yuan Chonghuan Memorial .

Huang Taiji publicly stated that he would never be able to beat Yuan in a fair game, thus having the Chongzhen Emperor kill him was the only method to get rid of him. Just as the message of Yuan's death reach Huang Taiji's ears, he changed his dynasty's name from Jin to Qing and proclaimed himself Emperor Qing Taizong. Historical records state that Huang Taiji feared Yuan's last words that his soul would always guard Liaodong Peninsula. Some say to overcome Yuan Chonghuan, whose name means "Undying Flames" (which contains the element of Fire), he had his dynasty name changed to Qing, meaning "to cleanse", which contains the Chinese element of "Water".

Popular culture

Although history states that his entire family was resettled, it is said in Jin Yong's wuxia novel Sword Stained with Royal Blood (碧血劍) that Yuan was survived by his son, Yuan Chengzhi. As the protagonist of the novel, Yuan learns martial arts on Mount Hua and vows to avenge his father's death. Jin Yong also put forward a theory by some other historians that it was the Chongzhen Emperor, not Huang Taiji, that had Yuan Chonghuan killed, and that the Chongzhen Emperor knew perfectly well that Yuan was innocent. As in the case of Yue Fei, Jin Yong proposed that the cause of Yuan's death was the Chongzhen Emperor's fear of his popularity with the people and his disrespect of the throne.

Yuan Chonghuan's name was cleared nearly a century later by the Qianlong Emperor, after conclusive evidence was found in old archives of the Imperial Qing court supporting his innocence. Qianlong tried to express his kindness by searching and rewarding for Yuan's direct descendants, but failed to find any of them.

Apart from the novel as stated above, there are various other books have been written on him. Various TV dramas or films have been made in his memory.

During the 2010 pro-Cantonese rally, protesters in an obscene chant that had been the Yuan's battle cry against his Manchu counterpart in the Battle of Ningyuan: 掉哪妈! 顶硬上! (trad: 掉哪媽! 頂硬上!) - "Fuck his mom! Hit them hard!"[5]

Notes

  1. ^ "Cantonese cultural warriors fight back". Asia Times. 2010-08-04. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  2. ^ 程本直墓記修廣東新義園碑記
  3. ^ 計六奇. 明季北略, vol.5
  4. ^ 372年守墓史曲終人散
  5. ^ Cantonese cultural warriors fight back

See also

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