Christopher Columbus and Evangelical Orthodox Church: Difference between pages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
St.Trond (talk | contribs)
715 edits
 
Cydebot (talk | contribs)
6,812,251 edits
m Robot - Speedily moving category Eastern Orthodox Churches of North America to Eastern Orthodox Churches in North America per CFD.
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Orthodoxyinamerica}} {{Orthodoxyinamerica}}
{{otheruses4|the explorer|the American filmmaker|Chris Columbus (filmmaker)}}
The '''Evangelical Orthodox Church''' is an [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christian movement with its origins in [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Protestantism]], particularly in the [[Campus Crusade for Christ]] student [[missionary]] organization, that came to embrace an Eastern tradition of Christianity.
{{pp-semi-protect|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Person
| name = Christopher Columbus
| image = Colomb.jpeg
| image_size =
| occupation___do_we_want_this? = [[List of maritime explorers|Maritime explorer]] for the [[Crown of Castile]]
| title = [[Admiral]] of the [[Ocean Sea]];<br>[[Viceroy]] and Governor of the Indies
| caption = Posthumous portrait of Christopher Columbus by [[Ridolfo Ghirlandaio]].
| birth_date = August October 25-31 1451
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date|mf=yes|1506|5|20|mf=y}}
| death_place = outside [[Valladolid]], Spain
|names in other languages = [[Latin language|Latin]]: Christophorus Columbus; Italian: '''Cristoforo Colombo'''; [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: '''Cristóvão Colombo''', formerly ''Christovam Colom''; Spanish: '''Cristóbal Colón'''; [[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''Cristòfor Colom'''
| nationality = Genovese
| other_names = Cristoforo Colombo<br>Cristóbal Colón
| religion = [[Roman Catholic]]
| spouse = [[Filipa Moniz]] (c. 1476-1485)
| children = [[Diego Colón|Diego]]<br>[[Fernando Colón|Fernando]]
| relatives = [[Bartolomeo Columbus|Bartolomeo]] (brother)<br>Diego (brother)
}}
<!--ACCORDING TO [[WP:Style]], places of b./d. must be listed in the text proper-->
'''Christopher Columbus''' (1451<ref>born between August 25 and October 31, 1451</ref> &ndash; May 20, 1506) was an [[Italian people|Italian]] [[navigator]], [[colonialist|colonizer]] and [[explorer]] whose voyages across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] led to general European awareness of the [[America (continent)|American continents]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Though not the first to reach the Americas from [[Afro-Eurasia]]{{mdash}}preceded some five hundred years by [[Leif Ericson]], and [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|perhaps by others]]{{mdash}}Columbus initiated widespread contact between [[Demography of Europe|Europeans]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous Americans]]. With his several hapless attempts at establishing a settlement on the island of [[Hispaniola]], he personally initiated the process of [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization]] which foreshadowed general [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] of the "[[New World]]." (The term "[[pre-Columbian]]" is usually used to refer to the peoples and cultures of the Americas before the arrival of Columbus and his European successors.)


The Campus Crusade missionary [[Peter E. Gillquist]] ([[1938]]-) established in [[1973]] in [[Chicago]] a network of [[house church]]es throughout the United States, aiming to restore a primitive form of Christianity, which was called the [[New Covenant Apostolic Order]] (NCAO).
His initial 1492 voyage came at a critical time of growing national [[imperialism]] and [[Competition (economics)|economic competition]] between [[History of Europe#Renaissance|developing nation states]] seeking wealth from the establishment of [[trade route]]s and [[Colonialism|colonies]]. In this [[politics|sociopolitical]] climate, Columbus's far-fetched scheme won the attention of [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella]] of Spain. Severely underestimating the [[circumference]] of the [[Earth]], he hypothesized that a westward route from [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] to [[East Indies|the Indies]] would be shorter and more direct than the overland [[trade route]] through [[Arabia]]. If true, this would allow Spain entry into the lucrative [[spice trade]]{{mdash}}heretofore commanded by the [[Arabs]] and [[Italians]]. Following his plotted course, he instead landed within the [[Bahamas|Bahamas Archipelago]] at a locale he named ''San Salvador''. Mistaking the [[North America|North-American]] island for the [[East Asia|East-Asian]] mainland, he referred to its inhabitants as "Indians".


Researching the historical basis of the Christian faith, Gillquist and his colleagues found sources for this restoration in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]]. This led the group to practice a more [[liturgy|liturgical]] form of [[Christian worship|worship]] than in their previous evangelical background. In 1977 initial contact with the ancient Orthodox Church was initiated through Orthodox seminarian and former Berkeley - Christian World Liberation Front member (Karl) John Bartke, who introduced them to [[Alexander Schmemann|Fr. Alexander Schmemann]], Dean of [[St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary]]. In [[1979]], the Evangelical Orthodox Church (EOC) was organized.
Academic consensus is that Columbus was born in [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], though there are [[Origin theories of Christopher Columbus|other theories]]. The name ''Christopher Columbus'' is the Anglicisation of the [[Latin]] ''Christophorus Columbus''. The name is rendered in modern Italian as ''Cristoforo Colombo'', in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as ''Cristóvão Colombo'' (formerly ''Christovam Colom''), and in Spanish as ''Cristóbal Colón''.


The belief of needing [[Apostolic Succession]] led most members of the EOC to join the [[Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America]] in [[1987]] after a lengthy and considerable search. The EOC first traveled to Istanbul to meet with the Patriarch of Constantinople but were unable to complete any substantial progress toward their goal. They next reunited with an old friend, Fr. John Bartke, who opened the door for them to meet [[Ignatius IV of Antioch]], the Patriarch of Antioch, during his historic visit to Los Angeles. Fr. Bartke then served for the next year as the primary intermediary with the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese and served as host for the initial set of chrismations and ordinations of the EOC at St. Michael's Church in [[Van Nuys, California]]. The group of 20 [[parish]]es became known as the Antiochian Evangelical Orthodox Mission, lasting until 1995 when it was disbanded and the parishes put under the standard [[diocese|diocesan]] framework of the Archdiocese. Some parishes which did not join the Antiochians eventually joined the [[Orthodox Church in America]], while a few remain independent and still use the EOC name.
The anniversary of Columbus' 1492 landing in the Americas ([[Columbus Day]]) is observed throughout the Americas and in Spain on October 12.


Currently, Bishop Jerold Gliege serves as the presiding bishop of the EOC, which has seven congregations and a monastery spread across the United States (IA, IL, IN), Canada (SK), Sweden, and Rwanda.
==Early life==


==See also==
<!--THIS SECTION IS LARGELY BASED ON BRITANNICA AND MORISON's ''Christopher Columbus''-->
* [[Jack Sparks|Fr. Jack Sparks]]
According to general assumption, nevertheless disputed, Christopher Columbus was born between August and October 1451 in [[Genoa]] (nowadays part of Italy).<ref>Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. ''The Worlds of Christopher Columbus''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Page 9. <br>"''Even with less than a complete record, however, scholars can state with assurance that Columbus was born in the republic of Genoa in northern Italy, although perhaps not in the city itself, and that his family made a living in the wool business as weavers and merchants. [...] The two main early biographies of Columbus have been taken as literal truth by hundreds of writers, in large part because they were written by individual closely connected to Columbus or his writings. [...] Both biographies have serious shortcomings as evidence.''"</ref> His father was [[Domenico Colombo]], a middle-class [[wool]] [[Weaving (disambiguation)|weaver]] - who later also had a [[cheese]] [[stand]] where his son was a helper - working between Genoa and [[Savona]]. His mother was [[Susanna Fontanarossa]]. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino and Giacomo were his brothers. Bartolomeo worked in a [[cartography]] workshop in [[Lisbon]] for at least part of his adulthood.<ref name=britannica> Encyclopedia Britannica, 1993 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 605ff / Morison, ''Christopher Columbus'', 1955 ed., pp. 14ff</ref>
* [[Duane Pederson|Fr. Duane Pederson]]


==Source==
At age 14, he attended [[Henry the navigator|Prince Henry's]] school of navigation in [[Sagres]], [[Portugal]]. He spoke a Genoese dialect. In one of his writings, Columbus claims to have gone to the sea at the age of 10. In 1470 the Columbus Family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Columbus was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of [[René I of Anjou]] to support his attempt to conquer the [[Kingdom of Naples]].
* Gillquist, Rev. Peter E. ''Becoming Orthodox: A Journey to the Ancient Christian Faith''. Ben Lomond, CA: Conciliar Press, 1989. (ISBN 0-9622713-3-0)

In 1473 Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro and Spinola families of Genoa. Later he allegedly made a trip to [[Chios]], a Genoese colony in the [[Aegean Sea]]. In May 1476, he took part in an armed convoy sent by Genoa to carry a valuable cargo to northern Europe. He docked in Bristol, Galway, in Ireland and was possibly in Iceland in 1477. In 1479 Columbus reached his brother Bartolomeo in [[Lisbon]], keeping on trading for the Centurione family. He married Filipa Moniz Perestrello, daughter of the [[Porto Santo]] governor, the Portuguese nobleman of Genoese origin [[Bartolomeu Perestrello]]. In 1479 or 1480, his son, [[Diego Columbus|Diego]], was born.

==Voyages==

{{main|Voyages of Christopher Columbus}}
===Navigation plans===
[[Image:ColombusMap.jpg|thumb|The "Colombus map" was drawn circa 1490 in the workshop of Bartolomeo and Christopher Colombus in [[Lisbon]].<ref>"Marco Polo et le Livre des Merveilles", ISBN 9782354040079 p.37</ref>]]
[[Image:Conceptions Colomb map-fr.svg|thumb|Columbus' geographical conceptions.]]
Europe had long enjoyed a safe land passage to China and India— sources of valued [[goods]] such as [[silk]], [[spices]], and [[opium|opiates]]— under the [[hegemony]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] (the [[Pax Mongolica]], or ''Mongol peace''). With the [[Fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 1453, the land route to Asia became more difficult. The Columbus brothers had a different idea. By the 1480s, they had developed a plan to travel to the Indies, then construed roughly as all of south and east Asia, by sailing directly west across the "[[Ocean Sea]]," ''i.e.,'' the Atlantic.

[[Washington Irving]]'s 1828 biography of Columbus popularized the idea that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because Europeans thought [[flat earth|the Earth was flat]].<ref name=book3>{{cite book | first=Paul F|last=Boller | title=Not So!:Popular Myths about America from Columbus to Clinton | year=1995 | id=ISBN 9780195091861}}</ref> In fact, the primitive maritime navigation of the time relied on the stars and the curvature of the [[spherical Earth]]. The knowledge that the Earth was spherical was widespread and the means of calculating its diameter using an astrolabe was known to both scholars and navigators<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1991. ''Inventing the Flat Earth. Columbus and modern historians'', Praeger, New York, Westport, London 1991;<br />Zinn, Howard 1980. ''A People's History of the United States'', HarperCollins 2001. p.2</ref>. The spherical view of the earth had been the general opinion of Ancient Greek science, and continued as the standard view in the Middle Ages (for example of [[Bede]] in ''The Reckoning of Time''). In fact the Earth had generally been [[Spherical Earth|believed to be spherical]] since the 4th century BCE by most scholars and almost all navigators{{Fact|date=December 2007}}, and [[Eratosthenes]] had measured the diameter of the Earth with good precision in the second century BC.<ref name = "Sagan 40,04147km">Sagan, Carl. ''Cosmos''; the mean circumference of the Earth is 40,041.47 km.</ref> Columbus put forth (incorrect) arguments based on a significantly smaller diameter for the Earth, claiming that Asia could be easily reached by sailing west across the Atlantic. Most scholars accepted [[Ptolemy]]'s correct assessment that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 [[longitude|degrees]] of the terrestrial sphere, and correctly dismissed Columbus's claim that the Earth was much smaller, and that Asia was only a few thousand nautical miles to the west of Europe. Columbus' error was put down to his lack of experience in navigation at sea.<ref name = "Morison-Admiral"> Morison, Samuel Eliot, ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: The Life of Christopher Columbus'' Boston, 1942</ref>

Columbus believed the (incorrect) calculations of [[Marinus of Tyre]], putting the landmass at 225 degrees, leaving only 135 degrees of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that one degree represented a shorter distance on the earth's surface than was actually the case. Finally, he read maps as if the distances were calculated in [[Mile#Other miles|Italian mile]]s (1,238 meters<!--Shouldn't it be 1,520 m-->). Accepting the length of a degree to be 56⅔ miles, from the writings of [[Alfraganus]], he therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as 25,255 kilometers at most, and the distance from the [[Canary Islands]] to Japan as 3,000 Italian miles (3,700 km, or 2,300 statute miles) Columbus did not realize Al-Farghani used the much longer Arabic mile (about 1,830 m).

[[Image:ColombusNotesToMarcoPolo.jpg|thumb|Handwritten notes by Christopher Colombus on the latin edition of [[Marco Polo]]'s ''Le livre des merveilles''.]]
The main problem was that experts did not accept his estimate. The true circumference of the Earth is about 40,000 km (25,000 sm), a figure established by [[Eratosthenes]] in the second century BC,<ref name = "Sagan 40,04147km"/> and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan 19,600 km (12,200 sm). No ship that was readily available in the 15th century could carry enough food and fresh water for such a journey. Most European sailors and navigators concluded, likely correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia non-stop would die of thirst or starvation long before reaching their destination. Spain, however, having completed an expensive war, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries in trade with the East Indies. Columbus promised such an advantage.

While Columbus' calculations underestimated the circumference of the Earth and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan by the standards of his peers as well as in fact, almost all Europeans held the mistaken opinion that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. As the 16th century developed it was the route to America, rather than to Japan, that gave Spain a competitive edge in developing an overseas empire.

There was a further element of key importance in the plans of Columbus, a closely-held fact discovered by or otherwise learned by Columbus: '''the trade winds.''' A brisk wind from the east, commonly called an "'''easterly'''", propelled Santa Maria, La Nina, & La Pinta for '''5 weeks''' from the Canaries. To return to Spain eastward against this prevailing wind would have required '''several months''' of an arduous sailing technique, called [[beating]], during which food & drinkable water would have been utterly exhausted. Columbus returned home by following prevailing winds northeastward from the southern zone of the North Atlantic to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, where prevailing winds are eastward (westerly) to the coastlines of Western Europe, where the winds curve southward towards the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbusnavigation.com/v1a.shtml|title=The First Voyage Log
| format = HTML
| accessdate = 2008-04-18}}
</ref> In fact, Columbus was wrong about degrees of longitude to be traversed and wrong about distance per degree, but he was right about a more vital fact: how to use the North Atlantic's great circular wind pattern, clockwise in direction, to get home.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/columbus.html|title=Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Empire
| format = HTML
| accessdate = 2008-04-18 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/08_1.shtml|title=Trade Winds and the Hadley Cell
| format = HTML
| accessdate = 2008-04-18 }}
</ref>

Some mean that his confidence in that land was within reach, was based on his travel in 1477 [http://www.cristobalcolondeibiza.com/eng/eng12.htm (1476-1477)], which may have taken him to Baffin Island at 73 degrees north [http://wissen.spiegel.de/wissen/dokument/06/38/dokument.html?titel=Gro%C3%9Fartige+Idee&id=13488360&top=SPIEGEL&suchbegriff=&quellen=&vl=0 (in German)]. On this tour he could also get information from [http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/archeo/oracles/norse/40.htm norse sailors and inuit kayakers] trading on the long coast extending from north to south at about this longitude, almost to Africa. [http://www.vsnrweb-publications.org.uk A History of Norway..., 12th century p. 3, lines 2-5]: ''This country, ..., is the western boundary of Europe, almost touching the African islands where the waters of ocean flood in.'' ("island": land accessible only by sea.)

===Funding campaign===

In 1485, Columbus presented his plans to [[John II of Portugal|John II]], [[King of Portugal]]. He proposed the king equip three sturdy ships and grant Columbus one year's time to sail out into the [[Atlantic]], search for a western route to [[Orient]], and then return home. Columbus also requested he be made "Great Admiral of the Ocean", created governor of any and all lands he discovered, and given one-tenth of all revenue from those lands discovered. The king submitted the proposal to his experts, who rejected it. It was their considered opinion that Columbus' proposed route of {{convert|2400|mi|km|-1}} was, in fact, far too short.<ref name = "Morison-Admiral"/>

[[Image:Arms of Columbus.jpg|thumb|left|Arms of Columbus]]

In 1488 Columbus appealed to the court of Portugal once again, and once again John invited him to an audience. It too was to come to nothing, for not long afterwards came the arrival of Portugal's native son [[Bartholomeu Dias]] from a successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa. Portugal was no longer interested in trailblazing a western route to the East.

Columbus travelled from Portugal once more to both [[Genoa]] and [[Venice]], but he received encouragement from neither. Previously he had his brother sound out [[Henry VII of England]], to see if the [[English monarch]] might not be more amenable to Columbus' proposal. After much carefully considered hesitation Henry's invitation came, too late. Columbus had already committed himself to Spain.

[[Image:Monumento a Colón (Madrid) 02b.jpg|thumb|200px|right|<small>Columbus and Queen Isabella. Detail of the Columbus monument in [[Madrid]] (1885).</small>]]

He had sought an audience from the monarchs [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella I]] of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], who had united the largest kingdoms of Spain by marrying, and were ruling together. On May 1, 1486, permission having been granted, Columbus laid his plans before Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it to a committee. After the passing of much time, these savants of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, reported back that Columbus had judged the distance to Asia much too short. They pronounced the idea impractical, and advised their Royal Highnesses to pass on the proposed venture.

However, to keep Columbus from taking his ideas elsewhere, and perhaps to keep their options open, the King and Queen of Spain gave him an annual annuity of 12,000 ''[[maravedis]]'' ($840) and in 1489 furnished him with a letter ordering all Spanish cities and towns to provide him food and lodging at no cost.<ref>Durant, Will ''"The Story of Civilization"'' vol. vi, "The Reformation". Chapter XIII, page 260.</ref>

After continually lobbying at the Spanish court and two years of negotiations, he finally had success in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had just conquered [[Granada]], the last Muslim stronghold on the [[Iberian peninsula]], and they received Columbus in [[Córdoba (Spain)|Córdoba]], in the ''[[Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos|Alcázar]]'' castle. Isabella turned Columbus down on the advice of her confessor, and he was leaving town in despair, when Ferdinand intervened. Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later rightfully claimed credit for being "the principal cause why those islands were discovered". King Ferdinand is referred to as "losing his patience" in this issue, but this cannot be proven.

About half of the financing was to come from private Italian investors, whom Columbus had already lined up. Financially broke after the Granada campaign, the monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made "Admiral of the Seas" and would receive a portion of all profits. The terms were unusually generous, but as his own son later wrote, the monarchs did not really expect him to return.

According to the contract that Columbus made with King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, if Columbus discovered any new islands or mainland, he would receive many high rewards. In terms of power, he would be given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) and appointed Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands. He had the right to nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands. He would be entitled to 10 percent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity; this part was denied to him in the contract, although it was one of his demands.
Finally, he would also have the option of buying one-eighth interest in any commercial venture with the new lands and receive one-eighth of the profits.

Columbus was later arrested in 1500 and supplanted from these posts. After his death, Columbus's sons, Diego and Fernando, took legal action to enforce their father's contract. Many of the smears against Columbus were initiated by the Spanish crown during these lengthy court cases, known as the ''pleitos colombinos''. The family had some success in their first litigation, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego's position as Viceroy, but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes continued until 1790.<ref>Mark McDonald, "Ferdinand Columbus, Renaissance Collector (1488-1539)", 2005, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714126449 </ref>

===First voyage===

[[Image:Columbus1.PNG|thumb|left|300px|First voyage.]]
[[Image:Santa-Maria.jpg|thumb|200px|[[ship replica|Replica]] of the ''[[Santa María (ship)|Santa Maria]]'']]
[[Image:Columbus Taking Possession.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A depiction of Columbus claiming possession of the [[New World]] in a [[chromolithograph]] made by the Prang Education Company in 1893.]]
On the evening of August 3, 1492, Columbus departed from [[Palos de la Frontera]] with three ships; one larger [[carrack]], ''[[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]]'', nicknamed ''Gallega'' (''the Galician''), and two smaller [[caravel]]s, ''[[Pinta (ship)|Pinta]]'' (''the Painted'') and ''Santa Clara'', nicknamed ''[[Niña]]'' after her owner Juan Niño of Moguer.<ref>[http://www.thenina.com/nina2.html The Columbus Foundation: Santa Clara]</ref> They were property of [[Juan de la Cosa]] and the [[The Pinzón Brothers|Pinzón brothers]] ([[Martin Alonzo Pinzón|Martin Alonzo]] and [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón|Vicente Yáñez]]), but the monarchs forced the [[Palos]] inhabitants to contribute to the expedition. Columbus first sailed to the [[Canary Islands]], which were owned by [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], where he restocked the provisions and made repairs, and on September 6, he started what turned out to be a five-week voyage across the ocean.

Land was sighted at 2 [[12-hour clock|a.m.]] on October 12, 1492, by a sailor named [[Rodrigo de Triana]] (also known as Juan Rodríguez Bermejo) aboard ''Pinta''.<ref name=book2>{{cite book | author= Clements R. Markham, ed | title=The Journal of Christopher Columbus (During His First Voyage) | Hakluyt Society (1893) | id={{ASIN|B000I1OMXM}}}}</ref> Columbus called the island (in what is now [[The Bahamas]]) ''San Salvador''; the natives called it [[Guanahani]]. Exactly which island in the Bahamas this corresponds to is an unresolved topic; prime candidates are [[Samana Cay]], [[Plana Cays]], or [[San Salvador Island]] (named San Salvador in 1925 in the belief that it was Columbus's San Salvador). The [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|indigenous people]] he encountered, the [[Lucayan]], [[Taíno]] or [[Arawak]], were peaceful and friendly. From the October 12, 1492 entry in his journal he wrote of them, "Many of the men I have seen have scars on their bodies, and when I made signs to them to find out how this happened, they indicated that people from other nearby islands come to San Salvador to capture them; they defend themselves the best they can. I believe that people from the mainland come here to take them as slaves. They ought to make good and skilled servants, for they repeat very quickly whatever we say to them. I think they can very easily be made Christians, for they seem to have no religion. If it pleases our Lord, I will take six of them to Your Highnesses when I depart, in order that they may learn our language."<ref>Robert H. Fuson, ed ''The Log of Christopher Columbus'', Tab Books, 1992, International Marine Publishing, ISBN 0-87742-316-4 </ref> Lacking modern weaponry and even metal-forged swords or pikes, he remarked upon their tactical vulnerability, writing, "I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased." <ref>[http://media.www.michigandaily.com/media/storage/paper851/news/2004/10/12/News/Columbus.Day.Sparks.Debate.Over.Explorers.Legacy-1425748.shtml Columbus Day sparks debate over explorer's legacy - News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

[[Image:Flag of Christopher Columbus.svg|200px|left|thumb|Captain's Ensign of Columbus' Ships]]
Columbus also explored the northeast coast of [[Cuba]] (landed on October 28) and the northern coast of [[Hispaniola]], by December 5. Here, the ''[[Santa Maria (ship)|Santa Maria]]'' ran aground on [[Christmas]] morning 1492 and had to be abandoned. He was received by the native [[cacique]] [[Guacanagari]], who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus left 39 men and founded the settlement of ''[[La Navidad]]'' in what is now present-day [[Haiti]].<ref>{{cite web| author=Maclean, Frances| title=The Lost Fort of Columbus| url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/fort-of-columbus-200801.html| publisher=''[[Smithsonian Magazine]]''| month=January | year=2008| accessdate=2008-01-24}}</ref> Before returning to Spain, Columbus also kidnapped some ten to twenty-five natives and took them back with him. Only seven or eight of the native ''Indians'' arrived in Spain alive, but they made quite an impression on Seville.<ref name=book2>{{cite book | author= James W. Loewen | title=Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong | Touchstone Books (1995) | id={{ASIN|1402579373}}}}</ref>

Columbus headed for Spain, but another storm forced him into [[Lisbon]]. He anchored next to the King's harbor patrol ship on March 4, 1493 in Portugal. After spending more than one week in Portugal, he set sail for Spain. He reached Spain on March 15, 1493. Word of his finding new lands [[Columbus's Letter on the First Voyage|rapidly spread throughout Europe]].

There is increasing modern scientific evidence that this voyage also brought [[syphilis]] back from the New World. Many of the crew members who served on this voyage later joined the army of [[King Charles VIII]] in his invasion of Italy in 1495 resulting in the spreading of the disease across Europe and as many as 5 million deaths.<ref> {{cite web|url = http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/01/14/syphilis-columbus.html|title = Study traces origins of syphilis in Europe to New World|accessdate = 2008-01-15|last = CBC News Staff|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = January}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url = http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0000148|title = On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach|accessdate = 2008-01-21|last = Harper, Kristin, et al|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = January}}</ref>

===Second voyage===

[[Image:Columbus2.PNG|thumb|300px|left|Second voyage.]]

Columbus left [[Cádiz]], Spain, on September 24, 1493 to find new territories, with 17 ships carrying supplies, and about 1,200 men to colonize the region. On October 13, the ships left the Canary Islands as they had on the first voyage, following a more southerly course.

On November 3, 1493, Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named [[Dominica]] (Latin for Sunday); later that day, he landed at [[Marie-Galante]], which he named Santa Maria la Galante. After sailing past [[Les Saintes]] (Los Santos, The Saints), he arrived at [[Guadeloupe]] ([[Santa María de Guadalupe]] de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of [[Villuercas]], in Guadalupe, Spain), which he explored between November 4 and November 10, 1493.

The exact course of his voyage through the [[Lesser Antilles]] is debated, but it seems likely that he turned north, sighting and naming several islands, including [[Montserrat]] (for Santa Maria de Montserrate, after the Blessed Virgin of the Monastery of Montserrat, which is located on the Mountain of Montserrat, in Catalonia, Spain), [[Antigua]] (after a church in Seville, Spain, called Santa Maria la Antigua, meaning "Old St. Mary's"), [[Redonda]] (for Santa Maria la Redonda, Spanish for "round", owing to the island's shape), [[Nevis]] (derived from the Spanish, Nuestra Señora de las Nieves, meaning "Our Lady of the Snows", because Columbus thought the clouds over Nevis Peak made the island resemble a snow-capped mountain), [[Saint Kitts]] (for [[St. Christopher]], patron of sailors and travelers), [[Sint Eustatius]] (for the early Roman martyr, [[Saint Eustace|St. Eustachius]]), [[Saba]] (also for St. Christopher?), [[Saint Martin]] (San Martin), and [[Saint Croix]] (from the Spanish ''Santa Cruz'', meaning "[[Holy Cross]]"). He also sighted the island chain of the [[Virgin Islands]] (and named them Islas de Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgenes, [[Saint Ursula]] and the 11,000 Virgins, a cumbersome name that was usually shortened, both on maps of the time and in common parlance, to Islas Virgenes), and he also named the islands of [[Virgin Gorda]] (the fat virgin), [[Tortola]], and [[Peter Island]] (San Pedro).

He continued to the [[Greater Antilles]], and landed at [[Puerto Rico]] (originally San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, a name that was later supplanted by Puerto Rico (English: Rich Port) while the capital retained the name, San Juan) on November 19, 1493. One of the first skirmishes between native Americans and Europeans since the time of the Vikings<ref name=book1>{{cite book | author=Phillips, Jr., William D. & Carla Rahn Phillips | title=The Worlds of Christopher Columbus | year=1992 | id=ISBN 9780521350976}}</ref> took place when Columbus's men rescued two boys who had just been castrated by their captors.

On November 22, Columbus returned to Hispaniola, where he intended to visit [[La Navidad|Fuerte de la Navidad]] (Christmas Fort), built during his first voyage, and located on the northern coast of [[Haiti]]; Fuerte de la Navidad was found in ruins, destroyed by the native [[Taino]] people, whereupon, Columbus moved more than 100 kilometers eastwards, establishing a new settlement, which he called [[La Isabela]], likewise on the northern coast of [[La Hispaniola|Hispaniola]], in the present-day [[Dominican Republic]]. However, [[La Isabela]] proved to be a poorly-chosen location, and the settlement was short-lived.

He left Hispaniola on April 24, 1494, arrived at [[Cuba]] (naming it Juana) on April 30. He explored the southern coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula rather than an island, and several nearby islands, including the [[Isla de la Juventud‎|Isle of Pines]] (Isla de las Pinas, later known as La Evangelista, The Evangelist). He reached [[Jamaica]] on May 5. He retraced his route to Hispaniola, arriving on August 20, before he finally returned to Spain.

During his second voyage, Columbus and his men instituted a policy in Hispaniola which has been referred to by numerous historians as genocide. The native Taino people of the island were systematically enslaved and murdered. Hundreds were rounded up and shipped to Europe to be sold; many died en route. For the rest of the population, Columbus demanded that all Taino under his control should bring the Spaniards gold. Those that didn't were to have their hands cut off. Since there was, in fact, little gold to be had, the Taino fled, and the Spaniards hunted them down and killed them. The Taino tried to mount a resistance, but the Spanish weaponry was superior, and European diseases ravaged their population. In despair, the Taino engaged in mass suicide, even killing their own children to save them from the Spaniards. Within two years, half of what may have been 250,000 Taino were dead. The remainder were taken as slaves and set to work on plantations, where the mortality rate was very high. By 1550, 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred Taino were left on their island. In another hundred years, perhaps only a handful remained.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newhumanist.com/md2.html |title=Christopher Columbus and the Indians by Howard Zinn |publisher=Newhumanist.com |date= |accessdate=2008-09-05}}</ref><ref>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Taino/docs/columbus.html Jack Weatherford, Examining the reputation of Christopher Columbus<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://web.mit.edu/thistle/www/v9/9.11/1columbus.html 9.11 - Columbus' History of Genocide<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/100.html Pre-Columbian Hispaniola - Arawak/Taino Indians<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

===Third voyage===

[[Image:Columbus3.PNG|thumb|300px|left|Third voyage.]]
[[Image:AndalusAndMorocco.png|200px|thumb|Location of city of [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda]], the starting point for Columbus' third journey.]]

On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships from [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]], for his third trip to the New World. He was accompanied by the young [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]], who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus' logs.

Columbus led the fleet to the Portuguese island of [[Porto Santo]], his wife's native land. He then sailed to [[Madeira]] and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain João Gonçalves da Camara before sailing to the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Cape Verde]]. Columbus landed on the south coast of the island of [[Trinidad]] on July 31. From August 4 through August 12, he explored the [[Gulf of Paria]] which separates [[Trinidad]] from [[Venezuela]]. He explored the mainland of South America, including the [[Orinoco|Orinoco River]]. He also sailed to the islands of [[Chacachacare]] and [[Margarita Island]] and sighted and named [[Tobago]] (Bella Forma) and [[Grenada]] (Concepcion).

Columbus returned to [[Hispaniola]] on August 19 to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontented, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. An entry in his journal from September 1498 reads, "From here one might send, in the name of the Holy Trinity, as many slaves as could be sold..." Indeed, as a fierce supporter of slavery, Columbus ultimately refused to baptize the native people of Hispanolia, since Catholic law forbade the enslavement of Christians. <ref name = "CBS-Mystery">[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/17/world/main2098785.shtml Christopher Columbus: Man Of Mystery, Not Much Is Known, And Some Of What's Been Discovered Isn't Good - CBS News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and natives. {{Fact|date=October 2007}} He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. On his return he was arrested for a period (see Governorship and arrest section below).

===Fourth voyage===

[[Image:Columbus4.PNG|thumb|300px|left|Fourth voyage.]]
Columbus made a fourth voyage nominally in search of the [[Strait of Malacca]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]. Accompanied by his brother [[Bartolomeo Columbus|Bartolomeo]] and his 13-year-old son [[Fernando Colón|Fernando]], he left Cádiz, Spain, on May 11, 1502, with the ships ''Capitana'', ''Gallega'', ''Vizcaína'' and ''Santiago de Palos''. He sailed to [[Arzila]] on the Moroccan coast to rescue [[Portugal|Portuguese]] soldiers whom he had heard were under siege by the [[Moors]]. On June 15, they landed at Carbet on the island of [[Martinique]] (''Martinica''). A [[hurricane]] was brewing, so he continued on, hoping to find shelter on [[Hispaniola]]. He arrived at [[Santo Domingo]] on June 29, but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his storm prediction. Instead, while Columbus' ships sheltered at the mouth of the [[Rio Jaina]], the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane. Columbus' ships survived with only minor damage, while twenty-nine of the thirty ships in the governor's fleet were lost to [[1492-1524 Atlantic hurricane seasons|the July 1 storm]]. In addition to the ships, 500 lives (including that of the governor, [[Francisco de Bobadilla]]) and an immense cargo of gold were surrendered to the sea.

After a brief stop at [[Jamaica]], Columbus sailed to [[Central America]], arriving at [[Guanaja|Guanaja (Isla de Pinos)]] in the [[Islas de la Bahía department|Bay Islands]] off the coast of [[Honduras]] on July 30. Here Bartolomeo found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo. On August 14, he landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near [[Trujillo, Honduras]]. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]], before arriving in Almirante Bay, [[Panama]] on October 16.

On December 5, 1502, Columbus and his crew found themselves in a storm unlike any they had ever experienced. In his journal Columbus writes,
<blockquote> For nine days I was as one lost, without hope of life. Eyes never beheld the sea so angry, so high, so covered with foam. The wind not only prevented our progress, but offered no opportunity to run behind
any headland for shelter; hence we were forced to keep out in this bloody
ocean, seething like a pot on a hot fire. Never did the sky look more
terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace, and the lightning broke with such violence that each time I wondered if it had carried off my spars and sails; the flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought that the ship would be blasted. All
this time the water never ceased to fall from the sky; I do not say it rained, for it was like another deluge. The men were so worn out that
they longed for death to end their dreadful suffering.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliot,''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', Boston, 1942, page 617.</ref>
</blockquote>

In Panama, Columbus learned from the natives of gold and a strait to another ocean. After much exploration, in January 1503 he established a garrison at the mouth of the [[Rio Belen]]. On April 6 one of the ships became stranded in the river. At the same time, the garrison was attacked, and the other ships were damaged. Columbus left for Hispaniola on April 16, heading north. On May 10 he sighted the [[Cayman Islands]], naming them "''Las Tortugas''" after the numerous [[sea turtle]]s there. His ships next sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel farther, on June 25, 1503, they were beached in [[Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica|St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica]].
[[Image:Eclipse Chistophe Colomb.jpg|thumb|Columbus's [[lunar eclipse]]]]
For a year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Mendez, and some natives paddled a [[canoe]] to get help from [[Hispaniola]]. That island's governor, [[Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres]], detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully intimidated the natives by correctly predicting a [[lunar eclipse]] for February 29, 1504, using the ''[[Ephemeris]]'' of the German astronomer [[Regiomontanus]].<ref>[[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', 1942, pp. 653–54. [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''Christopher Columbus, Mariner'', 1955, pp. 184-92.</ref> Help finally arrived, no thanks to the governor, on June 29, 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]], on November 7.

==Governorship and arrest==

During Columbus' stint as governor and viceroy, he had been accused of governing tyrannically. {{Fact|date=March 2007}}. Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted; his body was wracked by [[arthritis]] and his eyes by [[ophthalmia]]. In October 1499, he sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Spain to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern.

The Court appointed [[Francisco de Bobadilla]], a member of the [[Order of Calatrava]]; however, his authority stretched far beyond what Columbus had requested. Bobadilla was given total control as governor from 1500 until his death in 1502. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away, Bobadilla was immediately peppered with complaints about all three Columbus brothers: Christopher, Bartolomé, and Diego. Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian, states: "Even those who loved him [Columbus] had to admit the atrocities that had taken place."<ref name=newspaper1>{{cite news |author=Giles Tremlett |title=Lost document reveals Columbus as tyrant of the Caribbean |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,,1838823,00.html?gusrc=rss&feed=12 | publisher=[[The Guardian]] | date=[[2006-08-07]] | accessdate=2006-10-10 }}</ref><ref>Bobadilla's 48-page report&mdash;derived from the testimonies of 23 people who had seen or heard about the treatment meted out by Columbus and his brothers&mdash;had originally been lost for centuries, but was rediscovered in 2005 in the Spanish archives in [[Valladolid]]. It contained an account of Columbus' seven-year reign as the first [[Governor of the Indies]].</ref>

As a result of these testimonies and without being allowed a word in his own defense, Columbus upon his return, had manacles placed on his arms and chains on his feet and was cast into prison to await return to Spain. He was 53 years old.

On October 1, 1500, Columbus and his two brothers, likewise in chains, were sent back to Spain. Once in Cádiz, a grieving Columbus wrote to a friend at court:
<blockquote>
It is now seventeen years since I came to serve these princes with the Enterprise of the Indies. They made me pass eight of them in discussion, and at the end rejected it as a thing of jest. Nevertheless I persisted therein... Over there I have placed under their sovereignty more land than there is in Africa and Europe, and more than 1,700 islands... In seven years I, by the divine will, made that conquest. At a time when I was entitled to expect rewards and retirement, I was incontinently arrested and sent home loaded with chains... The accusation was brought out of malice on the basis of charges made by civilians who had revolted and wished to take possession on the land....

I beg your graces, with the zeal of faithful Christians in whom their Highnesses have confidence, to read all my papers, and to consider how I, who came from so far to serve these princes... now at the end of my days have been despoiled of my honor and my property without cause, wherein is neither justice nor mercy.<ref>[[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', p. 576.</ref>
</blockquote>

According to testimony of 23 witnesses during his trial, Columbus regularly used barbaric acts of torture to govern Hispaniola.<ref name = "CBS-Mystery"/>

Columbus and his brothers lingered in jail for six weeks before the busy King Ferdinand ordered their release. Not long thereafter, the king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to their presence at the [[Alhambra]] palace in [[Granada]]. There the royal couple heard the brothers' pleas; restored their freedom and their wealth; and, after much persuasion, agreed to fund Columbus' fourth voyage. But the door was firmly shut on Christopher Columbus's role as governor. From that point forward, [[Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres]] was to be the new governor of the West Indies.

==Later life==

[[Image:ColumbusHouseOfValladolid.jpg|thumb|left|A statue of the Santa Maria, Columbus' flagship in his first voyage. The statue is at the House of Columbus in [[Valladolid]], Spain, the city where Columbus died.]]

While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new [[crusade]] to capture [[Jerusalem]], often wore [[Franciscan]] habit, and described his explorations to the "paradise" as part of [[God]]'s plan which would soon result in the [[Christian eschatology|Last Judgment]] and the end of the world.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}

In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10 per cent of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown did not feel bound by these contracts, and his demands were rejected. After his death his family later sued for part of the profits from trade with America in the ''pleitos colombinos''.

[[Image:Tomb-of-columbus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Columbus's tomb in [[Seville Cathedral]]. It is borne by four statues of kings representing the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Kingdom of León|Leon]], [[Aragon]], and [[Navarre]].]]
On May 20, 1506, at about the age of 55, Columbus died in [[Valladolid]], fairly wealthy from the gold his men had accumulated in Hispaniola. When he died he was still convinced that his journeys had been along the east coast of Asia. According to a study, published in February 2007, by Antonio Rodriguez Cuartero, Department of Internal Medicine of the [[University of Granada]], he died of a heart attack caused by [[reactive arthritis|Reiter's Syndrome]] (also called reactive arthritis). According to his personal diaries and notes by contemporaries, the symptoms of this illness (burning pain during urination, pain and swelling of the knees, and [[conjunctivitis]] of the eyes) were clearly visible in his last three years.<ref>[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/408828.html Cause of the death of Colombus (in Spanish)]</ref>

His remains were first buried in Valladolid and then at the monastery of La Cartuja in [[Seville]] (southern Spain), by the will of his son [[Diego Colón|Diego]], who had been governor of Hispaniola. Then in 1542, his remains were transferred to [[Santo Domingo]], in eastern Hispaniola. In 1795, the French took over Hispaniola, and his remains were moved to [[Havana]], Cuba. After Cuba became independent following the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898, his remains were moved back to the [[Cathedral of Seville]] in Spain,<ref>[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/12368307610158273876213/p0000001.htm ''Cristóbal Colón: traslación de sus restos mortales a la ciudad de Sevilla'' at Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes]</ref> where they were placed on an elaborate [[catafalque]]. However, a lead box bearing an inscription identifying "Don Christopher Columbus" and containing fragments of bone and a bullet was discovered at Santo Domingo in 1877.

To lay to rest claims that the wrong relics were moved to Havana and that the remains of Columbus were left buried in the cathedral of Santo Domingo, [[DNA]] samples were taken in June 2003 (''History Today'' August 2003). The results are not conclusive. Initial observations suggested that the bones did not appear to belong to somebody with the physique or age at death associated with Columbus.<ref>Giles Tremlett, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,2763,1280590,00.html Young bones lay Columbus myth to rest], ''[[The Guardian]]'', August 11, 2004</ref> DNA extraction proved difficult; only a few limited fragments of [[mitochondrial DNA]] could be isolated. However, such as they are, these do appear to match corresponding DNA from Columbus's brother, giving support to the idea that the two had the same mother and that the body therefore may be that of Columbus.<ref name="remains">{{cite news |first=Rossella |last=Lorenzi |title= DNA Suggests Columbus Remains in Spain |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041004/columbus.html | publisher=[[Discovery Channel|Discovery News]] |date=October 6, 2004 | accessdate=2006-10-11 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12871458/ DNA verifies Columbus’ remains in Spain], ''[[Associated Press]]'', May 19, 2006</ref> The authorities in Santo Domingo have not allowed the remains there to be exhumed, so it is unknown if any of those remains could be from Columbus's body. The location of the Dominican remains is in the "Columbus Lighthouse" or Faro A Colon which is in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.

==Legacy==

{{globalize/US}}
{{POV-section|date=February 2008}}

Sometimes thought of erroneously as the discoverer of the New World, Columbus was preceded by the various cultures and civilizations of the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]], as well as the [[Western world]]'s [[L'Anse aux Meadows|Vikings]]. He is regarded more accurately as the person who brought the Americas into the forefront of Western attention. "Columbus' claim to fame isn't that he got there first," explains historian Martin Dugard, "it's that he stayed."<ref name=dugard>Dugard, Martin. The Last Voyage of Columbus. Little, Brown and Company: New York, 2005.</ref> Equally false is the notion that he was first to envision a rounded earth. This was known in ancient times, though largely forgotten in the Middle Ages. By Columbus's day, educated men were in agreement as to its spherical shape, even if many or most people believed otherwise. More contentious was the size of the earth, and whether it was possible in practical terms to cross such a vast body of water: the longest any ship (European or otherwise) had gone without making landfall did not much exceed 30 days when Columbus embarked on his first audacious voyage.
[[Image:Christopher columbus321.jpg|thumb|200px|Bronze statue at [[Central Park]], [[New York City]] by Jerónimo Suñol, 1894.]]
[[Image:N58102886 30717938 7388.jpeg|thumb|200px|Bronze statue at [[Wooster Square]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]]]
[[Image:1893 Nina Pinta Santa Maria replicas.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Replicas of the ''Niña'', ''Pinta'' and ''Santa Maria'' sailed from Spain to the [[Chicago Columbian Exposition]].]]

[[Amerigo Vespucci]]'s travel journals, published 1502-4, convinced [[Martin Waldseemüller]] that the discovered place was not India, as Columbus always believed, but a new [[continent]], and in 1507, a year after Columbus' death, Waldseemüller published a world map [[Americas#Naming|calling the new continent]] ''America'' from Vespucci's Latinized name "Americus".

Historically, the British had downplayed Columbus and emphasized the role of [[John Cabot]] as a pioneering explorer. But for the emerging United States, Cabot made a poor national hero. Veneration of Columbus in America dates back to colonial times. America itself was sometimes referred to as [[Columbia (name)|Columbia]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Stewart |first= George R. |authorlink= George R. Stewart |title= Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States |origyear= 1945 |edition= Sentry edition (3rd) |year= 1967 |publisher= [[Houghton Mifflin]] |pages= p. 199}}</ref> The use of Columbus as a founding figure of New World nations and the use of the word Columbia spread rapidly after the American Revolution. During the last two decades of the 18th century the name "Columbia" was given to the federal capital [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], South Carolina's new capital city, [[Columbia, South Carolina]], the [[Columbia River]], and numerous other places. Attempts to rename the United States "Columbia" failed, but Columbia became a female [[national personification]] of America, similar to the male [[Uncle Sam]].{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Outside the United States the name was used in 1819 for the [[Gran Colombia|Republic of Colombia]], a precursor of the modern nation of [[Colombia]].

A candidate for sainthood in the Catholic Church in 1866, Celebration of Columbus' legacy perhaps reached a zenith in 1892 when the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the Americas occurred. Monuments to Columbus like the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago]] were erected throughout the United States and [[Latin America]] extolling him. Numerous cities, towns, counties, and streets have been named after him, including the [[capital city|capital cities]] of two U.S. [[State (United States)|states]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]] and [[Columbia, South Carolina]]).

In 1909, descendants of Columbus undertook to dismantle the Columbus family chapel in Spain and move it to a site near [[State College]], Pennsylvania, where it may now be visited by the public. At the museum associated with the chapel, there are a number of Columbus relics worthy of note, including the armchair which the "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" used at his chart table.

Culpability is sometimes placed on contemporary governments and their citizens for the hardship suffered by Native Americans during the time of Christopher Columbus. Columbus myths and celebrations are generally a positive affair, making less room for this concept in history books. Christopher Columbus was strongly criticised<ref>[http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/html/20061003T220000-0500_113618_OBS_THE_LEGACIES_OF_CHRISTOPHER_COLUMBUS_.asp The legacies of Christopher Columbus - JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> in a song by Jamaican artiste [[Burning Spear]] titled 'A Damn Blasted Liar.' The controversial song opened a strong opinionated debate across much of the Caribbean region on the effects that Christopher Columbus and his leadership had on the region's native peoples.<ref>[http://www.blackbritain.co.uk/news/details.aspx?i=2225&c=slavery&h=Christopher+Columbus+tortured+slaves%2C+say+official+historical+documents Colourful | edition | weekend<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

The Spanish colonization of the Americas, and the subsequent effects on the native peoples, were dramatized in the 1992 feature film ''[[1492: Conquest of Paradise]]'' to commemorate the 500th anniversary of his landing in the Americas. *In 2003, Venezuelan President [[Hugo Chávez]] urged Native American Latin Americans to not celebrate the [[Columbus Day]] holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for leading the way in the mass genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3184668.stm |title=Columbus 'sparked a genocide' |accessdate=2006-10-21 |date=2003-10-12 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

==Physical appearance==

Although an abundance of artwork involving Christopher Columbus exists, no [[authentic]] contemporary [[portrait]] has been found. There is a portrait painted by [[Alejo Fernández]], between 1505 and 1536, titled [[Virgen de los Navegantes]] in the Royal Alcazar in Seville. At the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition]], 71 alleged portraits of Columbus were displayed, most did not match contemporary descriptions.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliot ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', pg. 47-48, Boston 1942.</ref> These writings describe him as having reddish hair, which turned to white early in his life, light colored eyes,<ref>Bartolomé de Las Casas, ''Historia de las Indias'', ed. Agustín Millares Carlo, 3 vols. (Mexico City, 1951), book 1, chapter 2, 1:29. ''The Spanish word garzos is now usually translated as "light blue," but it seems to have connoted light grey-green or hazel eyes to Columbus's contemporaries. The word rubio can mean "blonde," "fair," or "ruddy." The Worlds of Christopher Columbus'' by William D. & Carla Rahn Phillips, pg. 282.</ref> as well as being a lighter skinned person with too much sun exposure turning his face red.

In keeping with descriptions of Columbus having had auburn hair or (later) white hair, textbooks use the Sebastiano del Piombo painting (which in its normal-sized resolution shows Columbus's hair as auburn) so often that it has become the iconic image of Columbus accepted by [[popular culture]].

==In popular culture==
Colombus is a significant historical figure and has been depicted in fiction and in popular films and television.

In 1991, author [[Salman Rushdie]] published a fictional representation of Columbus in [[The New Yorker]], "Christopher Columbus and Queen Isabella of Spain Consummate Their Relationship, Santa Fe, January, 1492," (The New Yorker, June 17, 1991, p. 32). In [[Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus]] (1996) [[science fiction]] novelist [[Orson Scott Card]] focuses on Columbus' life and activities, but the novel's action also deals with a group of scientists from the future who travel back to the 15th century with the goal of changing the pattern of European contact with the [[Americas]]. British author [[Stephen Baxter]] includes Columbus' quest for royal sponsorship as a crucial historical event in his 2007 science fiction novel ''Navigator'' (ISBN 978-0-441-01559-7), the third entry in the author's ''Time's Tapestry Series''. American author [[Mark Twain]] based the time traveller's trick in [[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]] on Columbus's sucessful prediction of a lunar eclipse on his fourth voyage to the new world.
Columbus has also been portrayed in cinema and television, including mini-series, films and cartoons. Most notably he was portrayed by [[Gérard Depardieu]] in 1992 film by [[Ridley Scott]] ''[[1492: Conquest of Paradise]]''. Scott presented Columbus as an idealist as opposed to the view that he was ruthless and responsible for the misfortune of Native Americans. As in many of Scott's movies, the character is presented as having some ideas that weren't current at his time.

Other more recent productions include TV [[mini-series]] ''[[Christopher Columbus (TV series)|Christopher Columbus]]'' (1985) with [[Gabriel Byrne]] as Colombus, ''[[Christopher Columbus: The Discovery]]'', a 1992 [[biopic]] film by [[Alexander Salkind]], ''[[Christopher Columbus (film)|Christopher Columbus]]'', a 1949 film starring [[Fredric March]] as Columbus, and [[comedy]] ''[[Carry On Columbus]]'' (1992).

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* [[J. M. Cohen|Cohen, J.M.]] (1969) ''The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches with Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Others''. London UK: Penguin Classics.
* Cook, Sherburn and Woodrow Borah (1971) ''Essays in Population History, Volume I''. Berkeley CA: University of California Press
* Crosby, A. W. (1987) ''The Columbian Voyages: the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians.'' Washington, DC: American Historical Association.
* [[Thomas Friedman|Friedman, Thomas]] (2005) ''The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century''. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.
* [[Michael H. Hart|Hart, Michael H.]] (1992) ''[[The 100]]''. Seacaucus NJ: Carol Publishing Group.
* Keen, Benjamin (1978) ''The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son Ferdinand,'' Westport CT: Greenwood Press.
* Loewen, James. '''Lies My Teacher Told Me'''.
*Nelson, Diane M. (1999) ''A Finger in the Wound: Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala''. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.
* [[Samuel Eliot Morison|Morison, Samuel Eliot]], ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1942.
* [[Samuel Eliot Morison|Morison, Samuel Eliot]], ''Christopher Columbus, Mariner'', Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1955.
* Phillips, W. D. and C. R. Phillips (1992) ''The Worlds of Christopher Columbus.'' Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
* Turner, Jack (2004) ''Spice: The History of a Temptation''. New York: Random House.
* Wilford, John Noble (1991) ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
* [[Manuel Rosa|Rosa, Manuel DaSilva]] (2006) ''O Mistério Colombo Revelado''. Lisbon: Ésquilo.
* Fuson, Robert H. (1992) ''The Log of Christopher Columbus''. Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing
{{refend}}

==See also==
* ''[[1492: Conquest of Paradise]]'', a 1992 [[biopic]] film by [[Ridley Scott]]
* ''[[Origin theories of Christopher Columbus]]''
* ''[[Christopher Columbus: The Discovery]]'', a 1992 [[biopic]] film by [[Alexander Salkind]]
* ''[[Christopher Columbus (film)|Christopher Columbus]]'', a 1949 film starring [[Fredric March]] as Columbus
* [[List of Viceroys of New Spain]]
* [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]
* [[Bartolomeo Columbus]]
* [[Columbus Day]]
* [[Colombia]], South American country named in honor of ''Christopher Columbus''
* [[Fernando Colón]]
* [[Guanahani]] (a discussion of candidates for site of first landing)
* [[Knights of Columbus]]
* [[List of places named for Christopher Columbus]]
* [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]]
* [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]
* [[Rafael Perestrello]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Egg of Columbus]]


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.evangelicalorthodox.org The Evangelical Orthodox Church], official Communion homepage
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ogreatmystery.com/eoc/ About the Evangelical Orthodox Church], a site by former members
{{Commons|Christophorus Columbus|Christopher Columbus}}
* [http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/GUIDES/033.htm The Chicago Call]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/43/2.html The Letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant Angel Announcing His Discovery]
*[http://historicalpodcasts.googlepages.com/columbus Podcasts and audio about Columbus]
* [http://www.columbusnavigation.com/ Columbus Navigation]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/080_columbus.html Images of Christopher Columbus and His Voyages] Selections from the Collections of the Library of Congress.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Christopher+Columbus+(1451-1506) | name=Christopher Columbus}}
*[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20061007/mathtrek.asp The Eclipse That Saved Columbus] Science News October 7, 2006
*[http://www.newhumanist.com/md2.html Christopher Columbus and the Indians] By Howard Zinn, from ''A People's History of the United States''
* [http://red-coral.net/Columb.html Columbus in the Bay of Pigs] an historical poem about Columbus' invasion and Indigenous resistance
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Christopher_Columbus Christopher Columbus] 1911 Britannica article


;IMDB
*{{imdb title|id=0956118|title=Animated Hero Classics: Christopher Columbus (1991)}}
*{{imdb title|id=|0103594|title=1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992)}}


<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->


[[Category:Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
{{Persondata
[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1979]]
|NAME=Columbus, Christopher
[[Category:Evangelical denominations of North America]]
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Cristoforo Colombo, Cristóbal Colón
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Churches in North America|America]]
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[navigator]] and an [[admiral]] for the [[Crown of Castile]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=c. 1451
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Genoa
|DATE OF DEATH={{death date|mf=yes|1506|5|20|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Valladolid]], Spain
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Columbus, Christopher}}
[[Category:1451 births]]
[[Category:1506 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Genoa (city)]]
[[Category:15th-century explorers]]
[[Category:Italian explorers]]
[[Category:Explorers of Central America]]
[[Category:Age of Discovery]]
[[Category:Columbus family|Christopher]]


[[Ja:エヴァンゲリカル・オーソドックス教会]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|ta}}
[[af:Christophorus Columbus]]
[[ar:كريستوفر كولومبوس]]
[[an:Cristofo Colombo]]
[[ast:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[az:Xristofor Kolumb]]
[[bn:ক্রিস্টোফার কলম্বাস]]
[[be:Хрыстафор Калумб]]
[[be-x-old:Хрыстафор Калумб]]
[[bs:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[br:Kristol Goulm]]
[[bg:Христофор Колумб]]
[[ca:Cristòfor Colom]]
[[ceb:Cristobal Colon]]
[[cs:Kryštof Kolumbus]]
[[cy:Christopher Columbus]]
[[da:Christoffer Columbus]]
[[de:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[et:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[el:Χριστόφορος Κολόμβος]]
[[es:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[eo:Kristoforo Kolumbo]]
[[eu:Kristobal Kolon]]
[[fa:کریستف کلمب]]
[[ext:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[fr:Christophe Colomb]]
[[fy:Kristoffel Kolumbus]]
[[ga:Criostóir Colambas]]
[[gd:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[gl:Cristovo Colón]]
[[ko:크리스토퍼 콜럼버스]]
[[hi:क्रिस्टोफ़र कोलम्बस]]
[[hr:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[io:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[id:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ia:Christophoro Columbo]]
[[is:Kristófer Kólumbus]]
[[it:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[he:כריסטופר קולומבוס]]
[[jv:Christopher Columbus]]
[[pam:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ka:ქრისტეფორე კოლუმბი]]
[[kaa:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[kk:Колон, Кристобал]]
[[sw:Kristoforo Kolumbus]]
[[ku:Krîstof Kolomb]]
[[la:Christophorus Columbus]]
[[lv:Kristofors Kolumbs]]
[[lb:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[lt:Kristupas Kolumbas]]
[[lij:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[hu:Kolumbusz Kristóf]]
[[mk:Кристофер Колумбо]]
[[ml:ക്രിസ്റ്റഫര്‍ കൊളംബസ്]]
[[mt:Kristofru Kolombu]]
[[mr:ख्रिस्तोफर कोलंबस]]
[[ms:Christopher Columbus]]
[[nah:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[nl:Christoffel Columbus]]
[[ja:クリストファー・コロンブス]]
[[no:Christofer Columbus]]
[[nn:Kristoffer Columbus]]
[[oc:Cristòl Colomb]]
[[pag:Christopher Columbus]]
[[nds:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[pl:Krzysztof Kolumb]]
[[pt:Cristóvão Colombo]]
[[ksh:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[ro:Cristofor Columb]]
[[qu:Cristobal Colon]]
[[ru:Колумб, Христофор]]
[[sco:Christopher Columbus]]
[[sq:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[scn:Cristòfuru Culommu]]
[[simple:Christopher Columbus]]
[[sk:Krištof Kolumbus]]
[[sl:Krištof Kolumb]]
[[sr:Кристифор Колумбо]]
[[sh:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[su:Christopher Columbus]]
[[fi:Kristoffer Kolumbus]]
[[szl:Křištof Kolůmb]]
[[sv:Christofer Columbus]]
[[tl:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ta:கொலம்பஸ்]]
[[th:คริสโตเฟอร์ โคลัมบัส]]
[[vi:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[tg:Христофор Колумб]]
[[tr:Kristof Kolomb]]
[[uk:Колумб Христофор]]
[[ur:کولمبس]]
[[vec:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[vo:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[fiu-vro:Kolumbusõ Christoph]]
[[yi:קריסטאפער קאלאמבוס]]
[[zh-yue:哥倫布]]
[[bat-smg:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[zh:克里斯托弗·哥伦布]]

Revision as of 07:19, 12 October 2008

This article forms part of the series
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
in North America
History
People
Jurisdictions (list)
Assembly of Bishops
Other
Monasteries
List of monasteries in the United States
Seminaries
Organizations
Active
Other
Defunct
This article forms part of the series
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
in North America
History
People
Jurisdictions (list)
Assembly of Bishops
Other
Monasteries
List of monasteries in the United States
Seminaries
Organizations
Active
Other
Defunct

The Evangelical Orthodox Church is an Eastern Orthodox Christian movement with its origins in Evangelical Protestantism, particularly in the Campus Crusade for Christ student missionary organization, that came to embrace an Eastern tradition of Christianity.

The Campus Crusade missionary Peter E. Gillquist (1938-) established in 1973 in Chicago a network of house churches throughout the United States, aiming to restore a primitive form of Christianity, which was called the New Covenant Apostolic Order (NCAO).

Researching the historical basis of the Christian faith, Gillquist and his colleagues found sources for this restoration in the writings of the early Church Fathers. This led the group to practice a more liturgical form of worship than in their previous evangelical background. In 1977 initial contact with the ancient Orthodox Church was initiated through Orthodox seminarian and former Berkeley - Christian World Liberation Front member (Karl) John Bartke, who introduced them to Fr. Alexander Schmemann, Dean of St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary. In 1979, the Evangelical Orthodox Church (EOC) was organized.

The belief of needing Apostolic Succession led most members of the EOC to join the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America in 1987 after a lengthy and considerable search. The EOC first traveled to Istanbul to meet with the Patriarch of Constantinople but were unable to complete any substantial progress toward their goal. They next reunited with an old friend, Fr. John Bartke, who opened the door for them to meet Ignatius IV of Antioch, the Patriarch of Antioch, during his historic visit to Los Angeles. Fr. Bartke then served for the next year as the primary intermediary with the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese and served as host for the initial set of chrismations and ordinations of the EOC at St. Michael's Church in Van Nuys, California. The group of 20 parishes became known as the Antiochian Evangelical Orthodox Mission, lasting until 1995 when it was disbanded and the parishes put under the standard diocesan framework of the Archdiocese. Some parishes which did not join the Antiochians eventually joined the Orthodox Church in America, while a few remain independent and still use the EOC name.

Currently, Bishop Jerold Gliege serves as the presiding bishop of the EOC, which has seven congregations and a monastery spread across the United States (IA, IL, IN), Canada (SK), Sweden, and Rwanda.

See also

Source

  • Gillquist, Rev. Peter E. Becoming Orthodox: A Journey to the Ancient Christian Faith. Ben Lomond, CA: Conciliar Press, 1989. (ISBN 0-9622713-3-0)

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Columbus&oldid=244730453"