Force and The Charlatan (student newspaper): Difference between pages
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'''''The Charlatan''''' is a student newspaper at [[Carleton University]] in [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]]. |
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[[Image:Force.png|right|300 px|thumb|Forces are often described as pushes or pulls. They can be due to phenomena such as [[gravity]], [[magnetism]], or anything else that causes a mass to accelerate.]] |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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{{Classical mechanics|cTopic=Fundamental concepts}} |
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It is published by a not-for-profit corporation, Charlatan Publications Inc., and is independent of student governments and university administration. Papers are free, and are available in news-stands both on and off campus. It is published weekly during the fall and winter semesters, and monthly during the summer. The current editor-in-chief is Chris Hannay. |
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In [[physics]], a '''force''' is whatever can cause an object with [[mass]] to [[accelerate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eobglossary.gsfc.nasa.gov/Library/glossary.php3?mode=alpha&seg=f&segend=h |title=glossary |work=Earth Observatory |accessdate=2008-04-09 |publisher=[[NASA]] |quote=Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body.}}</ref> Force has both [[vector#Length of a vector|magnitude]] and [[Direction (geometry, geography)|direction]], making it a [[Vector (geometric)|vector]] quantity. According to [[Newton's second law]], an object with constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the [[net force]] acting upon it and in inverse proportion to its mass. An equivalent formulation is that the net force on an object is equal to the [[time derivative|rate of change]] of [[momentum]] it experiences.<ref>See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963).</ref> Forces acting on three-dimensional objects may also cause them to [[rotate]] or [[deformation|deform]], or result in a change in [[pressure]]. The tendency of a force to cause [[angular acceleration]] about an axis is termed [[torque]]. Deformation and pressure are the result of [[Stress (physics)|stress]] forces within an object.<ref name="texts">e.g. {{cite book | author = Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. | title = Lectures on Physics, Vol 1 |publisher = Addison-Wesley| year=1963}}; {{cite book | author = Kleppner, D., Kolenkow, R. J. | title = An introduction to mechanics | publisher = McGraw-Hill | date = 1973}}.</ref><ref name=uniphysics_ch2>''University Physics'', Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp18–38</ref> |
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==History== |
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Since antiquity, scientists have used the concept of force in the study of [[statics|stationary]] and [[dynamics (physics)|moving]] objects. These studies culminated with the descriptions made by the third century BC philosopher [[Archimedes]] of how [[simple machine]]s functioned. The rules Archimedes determined for how forces interact in simple machines are still a part of physics.<ref name="Archimedes">{{cite web |last=Heath,T.L. | url = http://www.archive.org/details/worksofarchimede029517mbp | title = ''The Works of Archimedes'' (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)| publisher = [[Archive.org]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 }}</ref> Earlier descriptions of forces by [[Aristotle]] incorporated fundamental misunderstandings which would not be corrected until the seventeenth century by [[Isaac Newton]].<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> Newtonian descriptions of forces remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years. |
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===''The Carleton'': 1945-1971=== |
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Originally called ''the Carleton'', the paper's first issue appeared on [[November 28]], [[1945]], the same year that the young Carleton College's [[Carleton School of Journalism|School of Journalism]] was formed. Only four issues appeared in the first year, but by [[1948]] it was a regular weekly. |
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Current understanding of [[quantum mechanics]] and the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]] associates forces with the [[fundamental interactions]] accompanying the emission or absorption of [[gauge boson]]s. Only four fundamental interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: [[strong force|strong]], [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], [[weak force|weak]], and [[gravitational force|gravitational]].<ref name="texts" /> [[High energy physics|High-energy particle physics]] [[observation]]s made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a unified [[electroweak]] interaction.<ref name="final theory" /> [[Einstein]] in his [[theory of general relativity]] explained that gravity is an attribute of the [[curvature]] of [[spacetime|space-time]]. |
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The paper's first office was in the Student Union Building on First Avenue, but when Carleton relocated to its new Rideau River campus, ''the Carleton'' moved to a basement-level office below Paterson Hall. When Carleton's student centre, or University Centre, was built in 1970, ''the Carleton'' moved to the fifth floor of that building, where it remains today. |
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== Pre-Newtonian concepts == |
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[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre2.jpg|thumb|150 px|right|[[Aristotle]] famously described a force as anything which causes an object to undergo "unnatural motion"]] |
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Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of the [[simple machine]]s. The [[mechanical advantage]] given by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work of [[Archimedes]] who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of [[buoyant force]]s inherent in [[fluid]]s.<ref name="Archimedes" /> |
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Citing a desire to have a more fun, pranksterish image in keeping with the political spirit of the times, editor-in-chief Phil Kinsman encouraged changing the name to ''the Charlatan''. This became the paper's official name after a staff referendum in March [[1971]]. |
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[[Aristotle]] provided a [[philosophy|philosophical]] discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of [[Physics (Aristotle)|Aristotelian cosmology]]. In Aristotle's view, the [[nature|natural world]] held [[four elements]] that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it was the natural state of objects with mass on [[Earth]], such as the elements water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.<ref>Land, Helen ''The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements'' (1998)</ref> This theory, based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior of [[projectile]]s, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a [[vacuum]], no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact that [[air resistance|air resists]] the motion of the projectiles.<ref name="Hetherington">{{cite book|first = Norriss S.|last = Hetherington|title=Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives|page=100|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities|date=1993|ISBN=0815310854}}</ref> |
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===''The Charlatan'': 1971-present=== |
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These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of [[Galileo Galilei]], who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of [[impetus theory|impetus]]. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the [[Aristotelian theory of gravity|Aristotelian theory of motion]] early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their [[velocity]] unless acted on by a force, for example [[friction]].<ref name="Galileo">Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5</ref> |
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Since its founding, the paper had been owned and administered by Carleton's undergraduate student government. Editors and the [[Carleton University Students' Association]] (CUSA) had several disputes over funding and editorial policy throughout the early 1970s, and to mediate these conflicts the two sides created a Joint Publishing Board in [[1975]]. The joint board consisted of two representatives each from CUSA and ''the Charlatan'', who appointed an independent fifth person, usually the university ombudsman, as chairman. |
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==Newtonian mechanics== |
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{{main|Newton's laws of motion}} |
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[[Isaac Newton]] is the first person known to explicitly state the first, and the only, mathematical definition of force—as the time-derivative of momentum: <math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{dt}}</math>. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', which used concepts of [[inertia]], force, and [[conservation law|conservation]] to describe the motion of all objects.<ref name="Principia">{{Cite book |
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| last = Newton |
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| first = Isaac |
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| author-link = Isaac Newton |
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| title = The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy |
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| publisher = University of California Press | year = 1999 | location = Berkeley |
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| isbn = 0-520-08817-4}} This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz.</ref><ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.<ref name="Principia" /> |
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After further editorial clashes with CUSA in the 1980s, ''the Charlatan'' began to lobby for its autonomy from CUSA. This was achieved by a vote of 1,013-457 in a campus-wide referendum in March [[1988]], followed by the incorporation of Charlatan Publications Inc. |
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[[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|150 px|thumb| Though [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s most famous equation is [[F=ma]], he actually wrote down a different form for his second law of motion that used [[differential calculus]].]] |
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The paper celebrated its 60th anniversary in September [[2005]]. |
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===Newton's first law=== |
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{{main|Newton's first law}} |
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==How the paper is run== |
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Newton's first law of motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external [[net force]] or ''resultant force''.<ref name="Principia" /> This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see [[#Dynamical equilibrium|a more detailed description of this below]]). Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate [[inertia]] that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making ''rest'' physically indistinguishable from ''non-zero constant velocity'', Newton's first law directly connects inertia with the concept of [[Galilean relativity|relative velocities]]. Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every [[inertial frame of reference]], that is, in all frames related by a [[Galilean transformation]]. |
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''The Charlatan'' reports on campus news as well as national events affecting students. Any Carleton student can volunteer, or seek election for one of about 10 part-time editorial positions or the full-time position of editor-in-chief. Editors are elected by staff every spring and hold their positions for one academic year. |
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For example, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a [[constant]] [[velocity]], the laws of physics do not change from being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving [[parabola|parabolic path]] in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and every thing inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be [[Galilean equivalence|physically indistinguishable]]. Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest. |
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The newspaper has several different sections: News, National, Perspectives, Features, Op-Ed, Arts and Sports. |
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The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The [[rotational inertia]] of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a [[day]] and the length of a [[year]]. Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example, astronauts experience [[weightlessness]] when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to herself, it will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference frame. This [[principle of equivalence]] was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the [[general theory of relativity]].<ref>{{cite web|first= Robert|last=DiSalle|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/|accessdate=2008-03-24|title=Space and Time: Inertial Frames|date=2002-03-30|work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]}}</ref> |
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The paper is funded by advertising and by an annual, non-refundable levy of $5.67 per undergraduate. These funds are administered by an elected board of directors, comprised of: |
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===Newton's second law=== |
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*five students-at-large, who do not contribute to the paper and are elected at the corporation's AGM; |
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{{main|Newton's second law}} |
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*two representatives elected by contributing staff; |
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*two professional representatives, at least one of whom must be a practicing journalist not on Carleton's faculty, and the other of whom may be a faculty member; |
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*the editor-in-chief, whose membership on the board is ''ex officio'' only. |
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The powers of the board and the editorial staff are defined in a written constitution. Generally speaking, the board is not allowed to intervene in editorial policy unless there are legal issues involved. |
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A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector [[differential equation]]:<ref>Newton's ''Principia Mathematica'' actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon ''impulse''. See [[Newton%27s_laws_of_motion#Impulse|''Impulse'']].</ref> |
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==Alumni== |
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:<math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{dt}}</math>, |
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Many of ''the Charlatan's'' alumni have gone on to be renowned journalists. Three of the former directors of Carleton's School of Journalism — T. Joseph Scanlon, Stuart Adam and Peter Johansen — are ''Charlatan'' alumni, as are several other members of the school's current faculty. |
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where <math>\vec{p}</math> is the [[momentum]] of the system, and <math>\vec{F}</math> is the net ([[Vector (geometric)#Vector addition and subtraction|vector sum]]) force. In equilibrium there is zero ''net'' force by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an ''unbalanced'' force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time. <ref name="Principia" /> |
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Notable alumni include: |
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By the definition of [[Momentum#Linear_momentum_of_a_particle|momentum]], |
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*[[Paul Couvrette]], photographer |
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:<math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}}{\mathrm{dt}} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\left(m\vec{v}\right)}{\mathrm{dt}}</math>, |
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*Bob Cox, [[Winnipeg Free Press]] editor-in-chief |
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*Lydia Dotto, science journalist and author |
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*Dian Duthie, [[CBC Television|CBC]] TV anchor |
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*Greg Ip, [[Wall Street Journal]] reporter |
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*[[Warren Kinsella]], [[National Post]] media columnist and former aide to prime minister [[Jean Chrétien]] |
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*James Orr, film director and screenwriter |
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*Sasa Petricic, CBC TV correspondent |
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*Jacquie McNish, [[Globe and Mail]] business reporter |
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*Matthew Sekeres, [[Globe and Mail]] sports writer |
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*Chris Wattie, National Post reporter |
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*Mark MacKinnon, Globe and Mail foreign correspondent |
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*Dave Ebner, Globe and Mail/Report on Business , Calgary bureau |
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*Chinta Puxley, Canadian Press Queen's Park bureau |
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==Competition== |
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''The Charlatan'' competes (usually in a friendly manner, though not exclusively) with ''[[the Resin]]'', a student-run newspaper for residence students. Carleton's engineering society also has its own newspaper, ''the Iron Times''. |
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where <math>m</math> is the [[mass]] and <math>\vec{v}</math> is the [[velocity]]. Because Newton's Second Law as stated only describes the momentum of systems that have constant [[mass]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws#cite_note-21], |
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Over the years, Carleton has supported several other campus newspapers, including ''the CUSA Update'', published by CUSA for a short time after ''the Charlatan's'' incorporation in 1988. None of these competitors have survived to the present day. |
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:<math>\vec{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\left(m\vec{v}\right)}{\mathrm{dt}} = m\frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{v}}{\mathrm{dt}}</math>. |
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==Criticism== |
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By substituting the definition of [[Acceleration#Definition|acceleration]], [[Newton's second law]] takes the famous form<br> |
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Over the years, some students, particularly those affiliated with or supportive of CUSA, have been very critical of ''the Charlatan''. One CUSA president organized a public debate on this subject in [[1983]], with criticisms including: it was accused of covering trivial topics at the expense of issues important to students, and was error-prone and sometimes had to retract or issue corrections concerning student-run bodies. |
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:<math>\vec{F} =m\vec{a}.</math> |
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Students not-supportive of CUSA have been critical as well, citing that ''the Charlatan'' has changed articles or played up or down quotes and events in order give a more positive image to the student council. |
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It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics".<ref>For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions [[blog]] on [[February 26]], [[2007]] at 9:29 a.m. [http://scienceblogs.com/interactions/2007/02/the_greatest_mystery_in_all_of.php]</ref> Newton never explicitly stated the formula in the final form above. |
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In addition to letters to the editor, students have expressed their criticisms of ''the Charlatan'' in VoiceBox, a regular feature in which the paper publishes anonymous comments left by students on a voice-mail account. This feature however, does not exclusively run criticisms of the Charlatan, but includes many other issues voiced by students, not always pertaining to subjects of a serious nature. In rare instances, critics have resorted to newspaper vandalism and theft, the most recent major instance of which was in March 2000, when 6,000 copies of a single issue were taken. |
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Newton's second law asserts the proportionality of acceleration and mass to force. Accelerations can be defined through [[kinematics|kinematic]] measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through [[frame of reference|reference frame]] analysis in advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. [[General relativity]] offers an equivalence between [[space-time]] and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of [[quantum gravity]], it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second law can be taken as a quantitative definition of ''mass'' by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and mass then are fixed. |
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In early 2006, two referendum questions asking for an increase in ''the Charlatan'''s per-student levy were defeated, by votes of 2276-1350 and 1926-1600 respectively. [http://charlatan.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=16923&Itemid=26 source] Critics of ''the Charlatan'' have pointed to these results as evidence of general dissatisfaction or apathy with the paper. Other increases in student levies also have a history of being defeated. |
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The use of Newton's second law as a <em>definition</em> of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous textbooks,<ref name="texts" /><ref>One exception to this rule is: |
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{{Cite book | last = Landau | first = L. D. | author-link = Lev Landau |
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| last2 = Akhiezer | first2 = A. I. |
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|last3 = Lifshitz |first3 = A. M. |author3-link = Evgeny Lifshitz |
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| title = General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics |
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| place=Oxford | publisher = Pergamon Press | year = 1967 | location = Oxford |
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| edition = First English }} |
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Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 12–14, this book defines force as ''dp/dt''.</ref> |
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because it is essentially a mathematical [[truism]]. The equality between the abstract idea of a "force" and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a "force" or "changing momentum" is must either be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more explicit definition of the concept of "force" include [[Ernst Mach]], [[Clifford Truesdell]] and [[Walter Noll]].<ref>e.g. W. Noll, “On the Concept of Force”, in part B of [http://www.math.cmu.edu/~wn0g/noll Walter Noll's website.].</ref> |
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In recent years, ''the Charlatan'' has put forth a strong effort to gain readership and improve the paper as a whole, though its past reputation continues to affect how students view ''the Charlatan''. |
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Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of [[planet]]s along with the accelerations of their [[orbit]]s allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets. |
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===Newton's third law=== |
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{{main|Newton's third law}} |
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Newton's third law is a result of applying [[symmetry]] to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. For any two objects (call them 1 and 2), Newton's third law states that any force that is applied to object 1 due to the action of object 2 is automatically accompanied by a force applied to object 2 due to the action of object 1.<ref>{{cite web |last=Henderson |first=Tom |title=Lesson 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion |work=The Physics Classroom |date=1996-2007 |url=http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/newtlaws/u2l4a.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> |
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:<math>\vec{F}_{1,2}=-\vec{F}_{2,1}.</math> |
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This law implies that forces always occur in action-reaction pairs.<ref name="Principia" /> If object 1 and object 2 are considered to be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since |
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:<math>\vec{F}_{1,2}+\vec{F}_{\mathrm{2,1}}=0</math>. |
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This means that in a [[closed system]] of particles, there are no [[internal force]]s that are unbalanced. That is, action-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the [[center of mass]] of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an [[external force]] acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.<ref name="texts" /> |
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Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the [[conservation of momentum|linear momentum of a system is conserved]]. Using |
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:<math>\vec{F}_{1,2} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}_{1,2}}{\mathrm{dt}} = -\vec{F}_{2,1} = -\frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{p}_{2,1}}{\mathrm{dt}}</math> |
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and [[integral|integrating]] with respect to time, the equation: |
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:<math>\Delta{\vec{p}_{1,2}} = - \Delta{\vec{p}_{2,1}}</math> |
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is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2, |
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:<math>\sum{\Delta{\vec{p}}}=\Delta{\vec{p}_{1,2}} + \Delta{\vec{p}_{2,1}} = 0</math> |
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which is the conservation of linear momentum.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dr. Nikitin |title=Dynamics of translational motion |date=2007 |url=http://physics-help.info/physicsguide/mechanics/translational_dynamics.shtml |accessdate=2008-01-04 }}</ref> Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalizing this to a system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.<ref name="texts" /> |
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==Descriptions== |
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[[Image:Freebodydiagram3 pn.svg|thumb|right|270 px|[[Free-body diagram]]s of an object on a flat surface and an [[inclined plane]]. Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes and the resultant.]] |
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Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can provide an intuitive understanding for describing forces.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> As with other physical concepts (e.g. [[temperature]]), the intuitive understanding of forces is quantified using precise [[operational definition]]s that are consistent with direct [[sensory perception|observations]] and [[measurement|compared to a standard measurement scale]]. Through experimentation, it is determined that laboratory measurements of forces are fully consistent with the [[conceptual definition]] of force offered by [[#Newtonian mechanics|Newtonian mechanics]]. |
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Forces act in a particular [[direction]] and have [[magnitude|sizes]] dependent upon how strong the push or pull is. Because of these characteristics, forces are classified as "[[vector|vector quantities]]". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted [[scalar]] quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the [[resultant|result]]. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you do not know which direction either person is pulling, it is impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other as in [[tug of war]] or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple [[one-dimensional]] example, without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems. |
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Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of [[static equilibrium]] where several forces canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive [[Vector (geometric)|vector quantities]]: they have [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] and direction.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the ''resultant'', is the [[vector addition|vector sum]] of the original forces. This is called the [[superposition principle]]. The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action. The resultant force can be determined by following the [[parallelogram rule]] of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.<ref name="texts" /> |
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[[Free-body diagram]]s can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that [[Vector (geometric)|graphical vector addition]] can be done to determine the resultant.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Introduction to Free Body Diagrams |
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| work =Physics Tutorial Menu |
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| publisher =[[University of Guelph]] |
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| url =http://eta.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/fbd/intro.html |
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| accessdate =2008-01-02}}</ref> |
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As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at [[right angle]]s to each other. A horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into components of a set of [[basis vector]]s is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using magnitudes and directions.<ref>{{cite web |
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| first = Tom |
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| last = Henderson |
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| title =The Physics Classroom |
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| work =The Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc. |
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| date =2004 |
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| url =http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/vectors/u3l1b.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-02 }}</ref> This is because, for [[orthogonal]] components, the components of the vector sum are uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are independent of each other; forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on each other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Force vectors can also be three-dimensional, with the third component at right-angles to the two other components.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Equilibria=== |
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[[Mechanical equilibrium|Equilibrium]] occurs when the resultant force acting on an object is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is zero). There are two kinds of equilibrium: [[static equilibrium]] and [[dynamic equilibrium]]. |
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====Static equilibrium==== |
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{{main|statics}} |
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Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have zero net force acting on them.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Static Equilibrium |
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| work =Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and torques) |
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| publisher = [[University of the Virgin Islands]] |
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| url =http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/StaticEq.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-02 }}</ref> |
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The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the [[normal force]]). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> |
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Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by [[static friction]], generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force ''exactly'' balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object.<ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> |
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A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as [[weighing scale]]s and [[spring balance]]s. For example, an object suspended on a vertical [[spring scale]] experiences the force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which is equal to the object's weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant [[density]] (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); [[Archimedes' principle]] for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the [[lever]]; [[Boyle's law]] for gas pressure; and [[Hooke's law]] for springs. These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his [[Newton's laws of motion|three laws of motion]].<ref name="texts" /><ref name=uniphysics_ch2/> |
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====Dynamical equilibrium==== |
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{{main|Dynamics (physics)}} |
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[[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|150 px|[[Galileo Galilei]] was the first to point out the inherent contradictions contained in Aristotle's description of forces.]] |
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Dynamical equilibrium was first described by [[Galileo]] who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and [[logic]]. Galileo realized that [[Galilean relativity|simple velocity addition]] demands that the concept of an "absolute [[rest frame]]" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant [[velocity]] was completely equivalent to rest. This was contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.<ref name="Galileo" /> |
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Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity. |
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A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with [[kinetic friction]]. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity motion.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Feynman diagrams=== |
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{{main|Feynman diagrams}} |
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[[Image:Beta Negative Decay.svg|250px|thumb|right|A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The [[W boson]] is between two vertices indicating a repulsion.]] |
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In modern [[particle physics]], forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying [[gauge boson]]s. |
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With the development of [[quantum field theory]] and [[general relativity]], it was realized that "force" is a redundant concept arising from [[conservation of momentum]] ([[4-momentum]] in relativity and momentum of [[virtual particle]]s in [[quantum electrodynamics]]). The conservation of momentum, from [[Noether's theorem]], can be directly derived from the [[Symmetry in physics|symmetry]] of [[space]] and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known [[fundamental forces]] are considered more accurately to be "[[fundamental interactions]]".<ref name="final theory">Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8</ref> When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. This description applies for all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see [[world line]]) traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at [[interaction vertex|interaction vertices]], and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.<ref name=Shifman>{{cite book|first=Mikhail|last=Shifman|title=ITEP LECTURES ON PARTICLE PHYSICS AND FIELD THEORY|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=981-02-2639-X}}</ref> |
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The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of [[fundamental interaction]]s but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a [[neutron]] [[beta decay|decays]] into an [[electron]], [[proton]], and [[neutrino]], an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the [[weak nuclear force]].<ref name="Shifman" /> |
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=== Special relativity=== |
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In the [[special theory of relativity]] mass and [[energy]] are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia). It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law <math>\vec{F} = \mathrm{d}\vec{p}/\mathrm{d}t </math> remains formally valid.<ref name="Cutnell_p855-876">{{cite book| last =Cutnell| title =Physics, Sixth Edition| pages =855–876}}</ref> But in order to be conserved, momentum must be redefined as: |
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:<math> \vec{p} = \frac{m\vec{v}}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}</math> |
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where |
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:<math>v</math> is the velocity and |
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:<math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]]. |
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The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with non-zero [[rest mass]] <math>m\,</math> moving in the <math>x\,</math> direction is: |
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:<math>F_x = \gamma^3 m a_x \,</math> |
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:<math>F_y = \gamma m a_y \,</math> |
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:<math>F_z = \gamma m a_z \,</math> |
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where the [[Lorentz factor]] |
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:<math> \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}</math><ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity |
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| work =THE RELATIVISTIC RAYTRACER |
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| url =http://www.anu.edu.au/Physics/Searle/Obsolete/Seminar.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> |
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Here a constant force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that <math> \gamma</math> is [[Division by zero|undefined]] for an object with a non zero [[Invariant mass|rest mass]] at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed. |
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One can however restore the form of |
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:<math>F^\mu = mA^\mu \,</math> |
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for use in relativity through the use of [[four-vectors]]. This relation is correct in relativity when <math>F^\mu</math> is the [[four-force]], m is the [[invariant mass]], and <math>A^\mu</math> is the [[four-acceleration]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| first =John B. |
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| last= Wilson |
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| title =Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physica |
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| work = The Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe |
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| url =http://members.aol.com/SciRealm/4Vectors.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> |
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==Fundamental models== |
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{{main|Fundamental interaction}} |
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All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short distances, and are responsible for holding certain [[nucleons]] and compound [[Atomic nucleus|nuclei]] together. The electromagnetic force acts between [[electric charge]]s and the gravitational force acts between masses. All other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation of the [[electromagnetic]] force acting between the [[atom]]s of two [[surface]]s, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle,<ref>{{cite web |
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| last =Nave |
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| first =R |
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| title =Pauli Exclusion Principle |
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| work = HyperPhysics***** Quantum Physics |
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| url =http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pauli.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-02}}</ref> which does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in [[spring (device)|springs]], modeled by [[Hooke's law]], are also the result of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position. [[Centrifugal force (fictitious)|Centrifugal force]]s are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating [[frames of reference]].<ref name="texts" /> |
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The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of [[Unified field theory|unification]] of disparate ideas. For example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. [[Michael Faraday]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]] demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of [[quantum mechanics]] led to a modern understanding that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter ([[fermions]]) interacting by exchanging [[virtual particles]] called [[gauge boson]]s.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Fermions & Bosons |
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| work =The Particle Adventure |
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| url =http://particleadventure.org/frameless/fermibos.html |
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| accessdate =2008-01-04 }}</ref> |
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This [[standard model]] of particle physics posits a similarity between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in [[electroweak]] theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet unobserved [[Higgs mechanism]], but observations such as [[neutrino oscillation]]s indicate that the standard model is incomplete. A [[grand unified theory]] allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as [[supersymmetry]] proposed to accommodate some of the outstanding [[unsolved problems in physics]]. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a [[theory of everything]]. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is [[string theory]].<ref name="final theory" /> |
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===Gravity=== |
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{{main|Gravity}} |
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[[Image:Falling ball.jpg|right|thumb|An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. An image was taken 20 flashes per second. During the first 1/20th of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12 mm); by 2/20ths it has dropped a total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9 units and so on.]] |
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What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the [[acceleration]] of every object in [[free-fall]] was constant and independent of the mass of the object. Today, this [[acceleration due to gravity]] towards the surface of the Earth is usually designated as <math>\vec{g}</math> and has a magnitude of about 9.81 [[meter]]s per [[second]] squared (this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and points toward the center of the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |
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| last = Cook |
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| first = A. H. |
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| journal = Nature |
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| title = A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory |
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| date = 16-160-1965 |
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| url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v208/n5007/abs/208279a0.html |
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| doi = 10.1038/208279a0 |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04 |
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| pages = 279 |
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| volume = 208 }}</ref> This observation means that the force of gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass. Thus an object that has a mass of <math>m</math> will experience a force: |
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:<math>\vec{F} = m\vec{g}</math> |
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In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a [[normal force]] exerted by the ground.<ref name="texts" /> |
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Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a [[Newton's Law of Gravity|law of gravity]] that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion]].<ref name=uniphysics_ch4>''University Physics'', Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp59–82</ref> |
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Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an [[inverse square law]]. Further, Newton realized that the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.<ref name=uniphysics_ch4/> Combining these ideas gives a formula that relates the mass (<math>M_\oplus</math>) and the radius (<math>R_\oplus</math>) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration: |
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:<math>\vec{g}=-\frac{GM_\oplus}{{R_\oplus}^2} \hat{r}</math> |
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where the vector direction is given by <math>\hat{r}</math>, the [[unit vector]] directed outward from the center of the Earth.<ref name="Principia" /> |
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In this equation, a dimensional constant <math>G</math> is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as [[Gravitational constant|Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant]],<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation |
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| work =Astronomy 161 The Solar System |
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| url =http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newtongrav.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was [[Henry Cavendish]] able to make the first measurement of <math>G</math> using a [[torsion balance]]; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the <math>G</math> could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same [[Kepler's laws|laws of motion]], his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, [[Newton's Law of Gravitation]] states that the force on a spherical object of mass <math>m_{1}</math> due to the gravitational pull of mass <math>m_2</math> is |
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:<math>\vec{F}=-\frac{Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^2} \hat{r}</math> |
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where <math>r</math> is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and <math>\hat{r}</math> is the unit vector pointed in the direction away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.<ref name="Principia" /> |
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This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of [[perturbation analysis]]<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Watkins |
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| first =Thayer |
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| title =Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular |
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| work =Department of Economics |
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| publisher =San José State University |
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| url =http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/perturb.htm |
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}}</ref> were invented to calculate the deviations of [[orbit]]s due to the influence of multiple bodies on a [[planet]], [[moon]], [[comet]], or [[asteroid]]. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet [[Neptune]] before it was observed.<ref name='Neptdisc'>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |title=Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction. |accessdate=2007-03-19 |last=Kollerstrom |first=Nick |date=2001 |publisher=University College London |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051111190351/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |archivedate=2005-11-11 }}</ref> |
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It was only the orbit of the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet ([[Vulcan (hypothetical planet)|Vulcan]]) that would explain the discrepancies; however, despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When [[Albert Einstein]] finally formulated his theory of [[general relativity]] (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added [[Tests of general relativity#Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury|a correction which could account for the discrepancy]]. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had been shown to be less correct than an alternative.<ref name = Ein1916>{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = Albert| authorlink = Albert Einstein| title = The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity| journal = Annalen der Physik| volume = 49 | pages = 769–822| date = 1916| url = http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.html| format = [[PDF]]| accessdate = 2006-09-03 }}</ref> |
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Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in [[geodesic|straight lines]] through [[curved space-time]] – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ''[[external ballistics|ballistic]] [[trajectory]]'' of the object. For example, a [[basketball]] thrown from the ground moves in a [[parabola]], as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the [[radius of curvature]] of the order of few [[light-year]]s). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Electromagnetic forces=== |
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{{main|Electromagnetic force}} |
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The [[electrostatic force]] was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two [[electric charge|charges]].<ref name="Cutnell_p519">{{cite book| last =Cutnell| title =Physics, Sixth Edition| page =519}}</ref> The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an [[inverse square law]] directed in the [[polar coordinates|radial direction]], was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic [[polarity]]), was independent of the mass of the charged objects, and followed the [[law of superposition]]. [[Coulomb's Law]] unifies all these observations into one succinct statement.<ref name="Coulomb">{{cite journal|first=Charles|last=Coulomb|journal=Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences|date=1784|title= Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de metal|pages= 229–269}}</ref> |
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Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the ''[[electric field]]'' to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical "[[test charge]]" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.<ref name="EM text">{{cite book | author=Feynman, Leighton and Sands | title= The Feynman Lectures on Physics The Definitive Edition Volume II | publisher =Pearson Addison Wesley | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0-8053-9047-2 }}</ref> Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as |
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:<math>\vec{E} = {\vec{F} \over{q}}</math> |
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where <math>q</math> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge. |
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Meanwhile, the [[Lorentz force]] of [[magnetism]] was discovered to exist between two [[electric current]]s. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the [[magnetic field]] can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be |
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:<math>B = {F \over{I \ell}}</math> |
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where <math>I</math> is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and <math>\ell</math> is the length of hypothetical wire through which the test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all [[magnet]]s including, for example, those used in [[compass]]es. The fact that the [[geomagnetism|Earth's magnetic field]] is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's [[rotation|axis]] causes compass magnets to [[orientation|become oriented]] because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle. |
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Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of [[Cross product|vector multiplication]] called [[Lorentz force|Lorentz's Law]] describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field.<ref name="EM text" /> The connection between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified ''electromagnetic force'' that acts on a charge. This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law: |
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:<math>\vec{F} = q(\vec{E} + \vec{v} \times \vec{B})</math> |
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where <math>\vec{F}</math> is the electromagnetic force, <math>q</math> is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, <math>\vec{E}</math> is the electric field, <math>\vec{v}</math> is the [[velocity]] of the particle which is [[cross product|crossed]] with the magnetic field (<math>\vec{B}</math>). |
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The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified a number of earlier theories into a succinct set of four equations. These "[[Maxwell Equations]]" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a [[wave mechanics|wave]] that traveled at a speed which he calculated to be the [[speed of light]]. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with [[optics]] and led directly to a complete description of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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|first=William|last=Duffin |
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|title=Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed. |
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|publisher=McGraw-Hill |
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|pages=364–383 |
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|year=1980 |
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|isbn=0-07-084111-X}}</ref> |
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However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the [[photoelectric effect]], and the nonexistence of the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]], proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to electromagnetic theory ultimately led to [[quantum electrodynamics]] (or QED), which fully describes all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as [[photon]]s. In QED, photons are the fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.<ref name="QM library">For a complete library on quantum mechanics see [[Quantum_mechanics#References]]</ref> |
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It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of [[solid state physics|solid matter]] to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the [[Pauli Exclusion Principle]]. Since electrons are [[fermion]]s, they cannot occupy the same [[wavefunction|quantum mechanical state]] as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural "force", it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states. |
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===Nuclear forces=== |
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{{main|Nuclear force}} |
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{{seealso|Strong force|Weak force}} |
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There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories of particle physics. The [[strong nuclear force]]<ref name="Cutnell_p940">{{cite book| last =Cutnell| title =Physics, Sixth Edition| page =940}}</ref> is the force responsible for the structural integrity of [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] while the [[weak nuclear force]]<ref name="Cutnell_p951">{{cite book| last =Cutnell| title =Physics, Sixth Edition| page =951}}</ref> is responsible for the decay of certain [[nucleon]]s into [[lepton]]s and other types of [[hadron]]s.<ref name="texts" /> |
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The strong force is today understood to represent the [[interaction]]s between [[quark]]s and [[gluon]]s as detailed by the theory of [[quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD).<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Stevens |
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| first =Tab |
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| title =Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition - Science Articles |
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| date =10/07/2003 |
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| url =http://www.physicspost.com/science-article-168.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04 }}</ref> The strong force is the [[fundamental force]] mediated by [[gluons]], acting upon quarks, [[antiparticle|antiquarks]], and the [[gluon]]s themselves. The strong interaction is the most powerful of the four fundamental forces. |
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The strong force only acts ''directly'' upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between [[hadron]]s (the best known example being the force that acts between [[nucleon]]s in atomic nuclei) as the [[nuclear force]]. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho [[mesons]] which classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for [[free quark]]s has shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called [[colour confinement]]. |
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The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy [[W and Z bosons]]. Its most familiar effect is [[beta decay]] (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated [[radioactivity]]. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10<sup>13</sup> times less than that of the [[strong force]]. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10<sup>15</sup> [[Kelvin]]. Such temperatures have been probed in modern [[particle accelerator]]s and show the conditions of the [[universe]] in the early moments of the [[Big Bang]]. |
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==Non-fundamental models== |
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Some forces can be modeled by making simplifying assumptions about the physical conditions. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical insight. |
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===Normal force=== |
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[[Image:Incline.svg|right|thumb|100px|''F<sub>n</sub>'' represents the [[normal force]] exerted on the object.]] |
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{{main|Normal force}} |
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The normal force is the surface force which acts [[normal vector|normal]] to the surface interface between two objects.<ref name="Cutnell_p93">{{cite book| last =Cutnell| title =Physics, Sixth Edition| page=93}}</ref> The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the impact force of an object crashing into an immobile surface.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Friction=== |
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{{main|Friction}} |
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Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: [[static friction]] and [[kinetic friction]]. |
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The static friction force (<math>F_{\mathrm{sf}}</math>) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the [[coefficient of static friction]] (<math>\mu_{\mathrm{sf}}</math>) multiplied by the normal force (<math>F_N</math>). In other words the magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality: |
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:<math>0 \le F_{\mathrm{sf}} \le \mu_{\mathrm{sf}} F_\mathrm{N}</math>. |
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The kinetic friction force (<math>F_{\mathrm{kf}}</math>) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force is equal to |
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:<math>F_{\mathrm{kf}} = \mu_{\mathrm{kf}} F_\mathrm{N}</math>, |
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where <math>\mu_{\mathrm{kf}}</math> is the [[coefficient of kinetic friction]]. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Continuum mechanics=== |
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[[Image:Stokes sphere.svg|thumb|150 px|When the drag force (<math>F_d</math>) associated with air resistance becomes equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on a falling object (<math>F_g</math>), the object reaches a state of [[#Dynamical equilibrium|dynamical equilibrium]] at [[terminal velocity]].]] |
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{{main|Pressure|Drag (physics)|Stress (physics)}} |
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Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to describe how forces affect idealized [[point particle]]s rather than three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of [[continuum mechanics]] describe the way forces affect the material. For example, in extended [[fluid mechanics|fluids]], differences in [[pressure]] result in forces being directed along the pressure [[gradient]]s as follows: |
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:<math>\frac{\vec{F}}{V} = - \vec{\nabla} P</math> |
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where <math>V</math> is the volume of the object in the fluid and <math>P</math> is the [[scalar function]] that describes the pressure at all locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the [[buoyancy|buoyant force]] for fluids suspended in gravitational fields, [[wind]]s in [[atmospheric science]], and the [[lift (physics)|lift]] associated with [[aerodynamics]] and [[flight]].<ref name="texts" /> |
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A specific instance of such a force that is associated with [[dynamic pressure]] is fluid resistance: a body force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to [[viscosity]]. For so-called "[[drag (physics)#Stokes' drag|Stokes' drag]]" the force is approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction: |
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:<math>\vec{F}_\mathrm{d} = - b \vec{v} \,</math> |
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where: |
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:<math>b</math> is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the [[cross-section|cross-sectional area]]), and |
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:<math>\vec{v}</math> is the velocity of the object.<ref name="texts" /> |
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More formally, forces in [[continuum mechanics]] are fully described by a [[Stress (physics)|stress]] [[tensor]] with terms that are roughly defined as |
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:<math>\sigma = \frac{F}{A}</math> |
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where <math>A</math> is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the [[Diagonal matrix|matrix diagonals]] of the tensor) as well as [[Shear stress|shear]] terms associated with forces that act [[parallel]] to the cross-sectional area (the off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all [[strain (physics)|deformations]] including also [[tensile stress]]es and [[compression]]s. |
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===Tension=== |
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{{main|Tension (physics)}} |
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Tension forces can be modeled using [[ideal string]]s which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable. They can be combined with ideal [[pulley]]s which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite direction by the second object.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =Tension Force |
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| work =Non-Calculus Based Physics I |
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| url =http://www.mtsu.edu/~phys2010/Lectures/Part_2__L6_-_L11/Lecture_9/Tension_Force/tension_force.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04 }}</ref> By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load, another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an [[mechanical advantage|increase in force]], there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the [[energy conservation|conservation of mechanical energy]] since the [[#Kinematic integrals|work done on the load]] is the same no matter how complicated the machine.<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Fitzpatrick |
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| first =Richard |
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| title =Strings, pulleys, and inclines |
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| date =2006-02-02 |
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| url =http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/lectures/node48.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04 }}</ref><ref name="texts" /> |
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===Elastic force=== |
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{{main|Elasticity (physics)|Hooke's law}} |
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[[Image:Spring-mass2.svg|right|thumb|150px|F<sub>k</sub> is the force that responds to the load on the spring.]] |
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An elastic force acts to return a [[Spring (device)|spring]] to its natural length. An [[ideal spring]] is taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable. Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended, in proportion to the [[displacement]] of the spring from its equilibrium position.<ref> |
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{{cite web |
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| work =HyperPhysics |
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| title = Elasticity, Periodic Motion |
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| publisher = Georgia State University |
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| url =http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/permot2.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> This linear relationship was described by [[Robert Hooke]] in 1676, for whom [[Hooke's law]] is named. If <math>\Delta x</math> is the displacement, the force exerted by an ideal spring is equal to: |
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:<math>\vec{F}=-k \Delta \vec{x}</math> |
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where <math>k</math> is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Centripetal force=== |
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{{main|Centripetal force}} |
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For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object is equal to<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Nave |
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| first =R |
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| title =Centripetal Force |
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| work = HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation |
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| url =http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/cf.html}}</ref> |
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:<math>\vec{F} = - \frac{mv^2 \hat{r}}{r}</math> |
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where <math>m</math> is the mass of the object, <math>v</math> is the velocity of the object and <math>r</math> is the distance to the center of the circular path and <math>\hat{r}</math> is the [[unit vector]] pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the [[speed]] of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Fictitious forces=== |
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{{main|Fictitious forces}} |
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There are forces which are [[frame dependent]], meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is, non-inertial) [[Frame of reference|reference frames]]. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the [[Coriolis force]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| last =Mallette |
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| first =Vincent |
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| title =Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC -- Writings, Links and Software Distributions - The Coriolis Force |
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| work =Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities |
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| publisher = Inwit Publishing, Inc. |
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| date =1982-2008 |
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| url =http://www.algorithm.com/inwit/writings/coriolisforce.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04 }}</ref> These forces are considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.<ref name="texts" /> In [[general relativity]], gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, [[Kaluza-Klein]] theory and [[string theory]] ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious. |
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==Rotations and torque== |
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[[Image:Torque animation.gif|frame|right|Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and [[angular momentum|momentum]] vectors (p and L) in a rotating system.]] |
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{{main|Torque}} |
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Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with [[torque]]s. Mathematically, the torque on a particle is defined as the [[cross-product]]: |
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:<math>\vec{\tau} = \vec{r} \times \vec{F}</math> |
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where |
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:<math>\vec{r}</math> is the particle's [[position vector]] relative to a [[pivot]] |
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:<math>\vec{F}</math> is the force acting on the particle. |
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Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that [[angle]] is the rotational equivalent for [[position]], [[angular velocity]] for [[velocity]], and [[angular momentum]] for [[momentum]]. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists [[rotational inertia]] that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque: |
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:<math>\vec{\tau} = I\vec{\alpha}</math> |
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where |
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:<math>I</math> is the [[moment of inertia]] of the particle |
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:<math>\vec{\alpha}</math> is the angular acceleration of the particle. |
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This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a [[moment of inertia#Moment of inertia tensor|tensor]] that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the characteristics of rotations including [[precession]] and [[nutation]]. |
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Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque: |
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:<math>\vec{\tau} = \frac{\mathrm{d}\vec{L}}{\mathrm{dt}},</math><ref>{{cite web |title=Newton's Second Law for Rotation |publisher=HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/n2r.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> |
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where <math>\vec{L}</math> is the angular momentum of the particle. |
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Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite torques,<ref>{{cite web |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Richard |title=Newton's third law of motion |date=2007-01-07 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336k/lectures/node26.html |accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> and therefore also directly implies the [[conservation of angular momentum]] for closed systems that experience rotations and [[revolution]]s through the action of internal torques. |
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==Kinematic integrals== |
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{{main|Impulse|Mechanical work|Power (physics)}} |
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Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by [[integration (calculus)|integrating]] with respect to [[kinematics|kinematic variables]]. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of [[impulse]]: |
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:<math>\vec{I}=\int_{t_1}^{t_2}{\vec{F} \mathrm{d}t}</math> |
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which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the [[Impulse momentum theorem]]). |
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Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the [[work (physics)|work done]] by a force:<ref name=Feynman13_3>Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3.</ref> |
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:<math>W=\int_{\vec{x}_1}^{\vec{x}_2}{\vec{F} \cdot{\mathrm{d}\vec{x}}}</math> |
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which is equivalent to changes in [[kinetic energy]] (yielding the [[work energy theorem]]).<ref name=Feynman13_3/> |
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[[power (physics)|Power]] ''P'' is the rate of change d''W''/d''t'' of the work ''W'', as the [[trajectory]] is extended by a position change <math>\text{d}\vec{x}\,</math> in a time interval d''t'':<ref name=Feynman13_2>Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2.</ref> |
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:<math> |
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\text{d}W\, =\, \frac{\text{d}W}{\text{d}\vec{x}}\, \cdot\, \text{d}\vec{x}\, =\, \vec{F}\, \cdot\, \text{d}\vec{x}, |
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\qquad \text{ so } \quad |
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P\, =\, \frac{\text{d}W}{\text{d}\vec{x}}\, \cdot\, \frac{\text{d}\vec{x}}{\text{d}t}\, =\, \vec{F}\, \cdot\, \vec{v}, |
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</math> |
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with <math>\vec{v} = \text{d}\vec{x}/\text{d}t</math> the [[velocity]]. |
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== Potential energy== |
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{{main|Potential energy}} |
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Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a [[potential energy]] field can be used for convenience. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the [[gravitational field]] that is present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of [[Mechanical work|work]]), a potential [[scalar field]] <math>U(\vec{r})</math> is defined as that field whose [[gradient]] is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point: |
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:<math>\vec{F}=-\vec{\nabla} U.</math> |
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Forces can be classified as [[Conservative force|conservative]] or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a [[potential]] while non-conservative forces are not.<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Conservative forces=== |
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{{main|Conservative force}} |
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A conservative force that acts on a [[closed system]] has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] or [[potential energy|potential]] forms. This means that for a closed system, the net [[mechanical energy]] is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space,<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Singh |
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| first =Sunil Kumar |
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| title =Conservative force |
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| work =Connexions |
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| date =2007-08-25 |
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| url =http://cnx.org/content/m14104/latest/ |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the [[contour map]] of the elevation of an area.<ref name="texts" /> |
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Conservative forces include [[gravity]], the [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] force, and the [[Hooke's law|spring]] force. Each of these forces has models which are dependent on a position often given as a [[radius|radial vector]] <math>\vec{r}</math> emanating from [[spherical symmetry|spherically symmetric]] potentials.<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Davis |
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| first =Doug |
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| title =Conservation of Energy |
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| work =General physics |
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| url =http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfadd/1350/08PotEng/ConsF.html |
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| accessdate = 2008-01-04}}</ref> Examples of this follow: |
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For gravity: |
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:<math>\vec{F} = - \frac{G m_1 m_2 \vec{r}}{r^3}</math> |
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where <math>G</math> is the [[gravitational constant]], and <math>m_n</math> is the mass of object ''n''. |
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For electrostatic forces: |
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:<math>\vec{F} = \frac{q_{1} q_{2} \vec{r}}{4 \pi \epsilon_{0} r^3}</math> |
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where <math>\epsilon_{0}</math> is [[Permittivity|electric permittivity of free space]], and <math>q_n</math> is the [[electric charge]] of object ''n''. |
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For spring forces: |
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:<math>\vec{F} = - k \vec{r}</math> |
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where <math>k</math> is the [[spring constant]].<ref name="texts" /> |
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===Nonconservative forces=== |
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For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of [[Microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstates]]. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the [[atoms]], but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other [[contact force]]s, [[Tension (physics)|tension]], [[Physical compression|compression]], and [[drag (physics)|drag]]. However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.<ref name="texts" /> |
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The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with [[statistical mechanics]]. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the [[internal energy|internal energies]] of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of [[heat]]. According to the [[Second Law of Thermodynamics]], nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as [[entropy]] increases.<ref name="texts" /> |
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== Units of measurement == |
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The [[SI]] unit of force is the [[newton]] (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s<sup>−2</sup>.<ref name=metric_units> |
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{{cite book |first=Cornelius |last=Wandmacher |first2=Arnold |last2=Johnson |title=Metric Units in Engineering |page=15 |year=1995 |publisher=ASCE Publications |isbn=0784400709}}</ref> The corresponding [[CGS]] unit is the [[dyne]], the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s<sup>−2</sup>. A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dyne. |
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The [[foot-pound-second]] [[Imperial unit]] of force is the [[pound-force]] (lbf), defined as the force exerted by gravity on a [[pound-mass]] in the [[Standard gravity|standard gravitational]] field of 9.80665 m·s<sup>−2</sup>.<ref name=metric_units/> The pound-force provides an alternate unit of mass: one [[slug (mass)|slug]] is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-force.<ref name=metric_units/> An alternate unit of force in the same system is the [[poundal]], defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.<ref name=metric_units/> The units of [[slug (mass)|slug]] and [[poundal]] are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in [[Newton's Second Law]]. |
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The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the [[kilogram-force]] (kgf) (sometimes [[kilopond]]), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.<ref name=metric_units/> The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the [[metric slug]] (sometimes [[mug]] or [[hyl]]) is that mass which accelerates at 1 m·s<sup>−2</sup> when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the [[sthène]] which is equivalent to 1000 N and the [[kip (force)|kip]] which is equivalent to 1000 lbf. |
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{{units of force|center=yes}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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*''The Charlatan'', ISSN 0315-1859. |
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== Bibliography == |
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*Evan Annett, ''You Charlatans'' (Charlatan Publications Inc., 2005). |
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* {{cite book |
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*Blair Neatby and Don McEown, ''Creating Carleton: The Shaping of a University'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002) |
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| last = Corbell | first = H.C. |
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*John Lorinc, "Two-thirds approve of free Charlatan," ''The Charlatan'', March 24, 1988, p. 3. |
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| coauthors = Philip Stehle |
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| title = Classical Mechanics p 28, |
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| location = New York |
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| publisher = Dover publications |
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| year = 1994 |
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| id = ISBN 0-486-68063-0 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last =Cutnell |
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| first =John d. |
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| coauthors =Johnson, Kenneth W. |
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| title =Physics, Sixth Edition |
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| publisher =John Wiley & Sons Inc. |
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| date =2004 |
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| location =Hoboken, NJ |
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| isbn =041-44895-8 }} |
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*{{cite book | author = Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. | title = Lectures on Physics, Vol 1 |publisher = Addison-Wesley| year=1963 | id = ISBN 0-201-02116-1}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Halliday | first = David |
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| coauthors = Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane |
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| title = Physics v. 1 |
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| location = New York |
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| publisher = John Wiley & Sons |
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| year = 2001 |
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| id = ISBN 0-471-32057-9 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Parker | first = Sybil |
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| title = Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443, |
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| location = Ohio |
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| publisher = McGraw-Hill |
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| year = 1993 |
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| id = ISBN 0-07-051400-3 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. |
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| title = University Physics |
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| publisher = Addison-Wesley |
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| location = Reading, MA |
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| year = 1982 |
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| id = ISBN 0-201-07199-1 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Serway | first = Raymond A. |
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| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers |
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| location = Philadelphia |
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| publisher = Saunders College Publishing |
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| year = 2003 |
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| id = ISBN 0-534-40842-7 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Tipler | first = Paul |
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| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics |
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| edition = 5th ed. |
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| publisher = W. H. Freeman |
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| year = 2004 |
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| id = ISBN 0-7167-0809-4 |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
|||
| last = Verma | first = H.C. |
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| title = Concepts of Physics Vol 1. |
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| edition = 2004 Reprint |
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| publisher = Bharti Bhavan |
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| year = 2004 |
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| id = ISBN 81-7709-187-5 |
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}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
||
*[http://www.charlatan.ca/ ''The Charlatan''] official site |
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*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall1999/VideoLectures/detail/Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6.htm Video lecture on Newton's three laws] by [[Walter Lewin]] from [[MIT OpenCourseWare]] |
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*[http://www.carleton.ca/ Carleton University] official site |
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*[http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Vector.htm A Java simulation on vector addition of forces] |
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{{Carleton_UC}} |
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Revision as of 15:04, 11 October 2008
The Charlatan is a student newspaper at Carleton University in Ottawa, Ontario.
It is published by a not-for-profit corporation, Charlatan Publications Inc., and is independent of student governments and university administration. Papers are free, and are available in news-stands both on and off campus. It is published weekly during the fall and winter semesters, and monthly during the summer. The current editor-in-chief is Chris Hannay.
History
The Carleton: 1945-1971
Originally called the Carleton, the paper's first issue appeared on November 28, 1945, the same year that the young Carleton College's School of Journalism was formed. Only four issues appeared in the first year, but by 1948 it was a regular weekly.
The paper's first office was in the Student Union Building on First Avenue, but when Carleton relocated to its new Rideau River campus, the Carleton moved to a basement-level office below Paterson Hall. When Carleton's student centre, or University Centre, was built in 1970, the Carleton moved to the fifth floor of that building, where it remains today.
Citing a desire to have a more fun, pranksterish image in keeping with the political spirit of the times, editor-in-chief Phil Kinsman encouraged changing the name to the Charlatan. This became the paper's official name after a staff referendum in March 1971.
The Charlatan: 1971-present
Since its founding, the paper had been owned and administered by Carleton's undergraduate student government. Editors and the Carleton University Students' Association (CUSA) had several disputes over funding and editorial policy throughout the early 1970s, and to mediate these conflicts the two sides created a Joint Publishing Board in 1975. The joint board consisted of two representatives each from CUSA and the Charlatan, who appointed an independent fifth person, usually the university ombudsman, as chairman.
After further editorial clashes with CUSA in the 1980s, the Charlatan began to lobby for its autonomy from CUSA. This was achieved by a vote of 1,013-457 in a campus-wide referendum in March 1988, followed by the incorporation of Charlatan Publications Inc.
The paper celebrated its 60th anniversary in September 2005.
How the paper is run
The Charlatan reports on campus news as well as national events affecting students. Any Carleton student can volunteer, or seek election for one of about 10 part-time editorial positions or the full-time position of editor-in-chief. Editors are elected by staff every spring and hold their positions for one academic year.
The newspaper has several different sections: News, National, Perspectives, Features, Op-Ed, Arts and Sports.
The paper is funded by advertising and by an annual, non-refundable levy of $5.67 per undergraduate. These funds are administered by an elected board of directors, comprised of:
- five students-at-large, who do not contribute to the paper and are elected at the corporation's AGM;
- two representatives elected by contributing staff;
- two professional representatives, at least one of whom must be a practicing journalist not on Carleton's faculty, and the other of whom may be a faculty member;
- the editor-in-chief, whose membership on the board is ex officio only.
The powers of the board and the editorial staff are defined in a written constitution. Generally speaking, the board is not allowed to intervene in editorial policy unless there are legal issues involved.
Alumni
Many of the Charlatan's alumni have gone on to be renowned journalists. Three of the former directors of Carleton's School of Journalism — T. Joseph Scanlon, Stuart Adam and Peter Johansen — are Charlatan alumni, as are several other members of the school's current faculty.
Notable alumni include:
- Paul Couvrette, photographer
- Bob Cox, Winnipeg Free Press editor-in-chief
- Lydia Dotto, science journalist and author
- Dian Duthie, CBC TV anchor
- Greg Ip, Wall Street Journal reporter
- Warren Kinsella, National Post media columnist and former aide to prime minister Jean Chrétien
- James Orr, film director and screenwriter
- Sasa Petricic, CBC TV correspondent
- Jacquie McNish, Globe and Mail business reporter
- Matthew Sekeres, Globe and Mail sports writer
- Chris Wattie, National Post reporter
- Mark MacKinnon, Globe and Mail foreign correspondent
- Dave Ebner, Globe and Mail/Report on Business , Calgary bureau
- Chinta Puxley, Canadian Press Queen's Park bureau
Competition
The Charlatan competes (usually in a friendly manner, though not exclusively) with the Resin, a student-run newspaper for residence students. Carleton's engineering society also has its own newspaper, the Iron Times.
Over the years, Carleton has supported several other campus newspapers, including the CUSA Update, published by CUSA for a short time after the Charlatan's incorporation in 1988. None of these competitors have survived to the present day.
Criticism
Over the years, some students, particularly those affiliated with or supportive of CUSA, have been very critical of the Charlatan. One CUSA president organized a public debate on this subject in 1983, with criticisms including: it was accused of covering trivial topics at the expense of issues important to students, and was error-prone and sometimes had to retract or issue corrections concerning student-run bodies.
Students not-supportive of CUSA have been critical as well, citing that the Charlatan has changed articles or played up or down quotes and events in order give a more positive image to the student council.
In addition to letters to the editor, students have expressed their criticisms of the Charlatan in VoiceBox, a regular feature in which the paper publishes anonymous comments left by students on a voice-mail account. This feature however, does not exclusively run criticisms of the Charlatan, but includes many other issues voiced by students, not always pertaining to subjects of a serious nature. In rare instances, critics have resorted to newspaper vandalism and theft, the most recent major instance of which was in March 2000, when 6,000 copies of a single issue were taken.
In early 2006, two referendum questions asking for an increase in the Charlatan's per-student levy were defeated, by votes of 2276-1350 and 1926-1600 respectively. source Critics of the Charlatan have pointed to these results as evidence of general dissatisfaction or apathy with the paper. Other increases in student levies also have a history of being defeated.
In recent years, the Charlatan has put forth a strong effort to gain readership and improve the paper as a whole, though its past reputation continues to affect how students view the Charlatan.
References
- The Charlatan, ISSN 0315-1859.
- Evan Annett, You Charlatans (Charlatan Publications Inc., 2005).
- Blair Neatby and Don McEown, Creating Carleton: The Shaping of a University (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002)
- John Lorinc, "Two-thirds approve of free Charlatan," The Charlatan, March 24, 1988, p. 3.
External links
- The Charlatan official site
- Carleton University official site