Hittite belief in the dead and ideas of the afterlife

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Hittite belief in the dead and the Hittite ideas of the afterlife form an important part of Hittite mythology , which deals with human death and the afterlife .

Concepts of the soul among the Hittites

For the Hittites, humans as well as gods and animals had a body ( Heth. Tuekka- , sumerographic NÍ.TE) and a soul or life substance (Heth. Ištanza (n (a)) - , sumerographic ZI). The soul was the seat of thought, will and personality. The seat of emotions were both the soul and the bowels (Heth. Karat , Sumerographic ŠÀ). Unlike the souls of animals, the souls of humans and gods were immortal and did not die with the body. The perfected human soul of the deceased is referred to in a Hittite ritual text as a “pure matter of the sun deity” and as godlike (literally: God).

Death among the Hittites

The Hittites knew numerous euphemistic names for death, the day of death or the hour of death. So the hour of death was the "cut off time" (heth. Lammar kartan ). Another euphemism for dying was “stepping off the path”. A whole series of names seem to spring from ancestral belief. If the Hittite king or queen dies, he or she “becomes God” (Heth. Šiu (n) ) and “reaches the mountain” in which his ancestors lived. In addition, the day of death among the Hittites was called "Mother's Day" or the "Day of his father and mother", an expression that was clearly derived from ancestral belief. The "day of the mother" expresses the Hittite conviction that the person born by the mother comes from the underworld and is picked up by the same on the day of his death in order to be wrested from the violence of the underworld sun goddess of the earth and to the pasture of the blessed to be brought so that death was understood as a kind of birth. The day of death was also called the "day of his / her destiny". The " auspicious day " (Sumerographic UD.SIG 5 ) was another euphemism of the day of death, which was worshiped as a personification of the same as God and received offerings.

The Hittites distinguished between a “good” and a “bad”, an untimely death. If a person died young, the goddesses of fate Gulšeš or the corresponding Hurrian goddesses of fate Ḫudena Ḫudellura could be held responsible for it. In most cases, however, premature death was viewed as a reaction of the gods to previous human misconduct that had angered the gods. Therefore an attempt was made to find out the reasons for the anger of the gods by means of an oracle or to pacify the responsible deity through prayers and offerings. There were also magical rituals that were supposed to help avert the threatening fate.

Cult of the dead

Funeral rites

Since, according to Hittite belief, the unburied dead had to wander between this world and the hereafter and such spirits of the dead were feared by people, the burial of the dead and the associated correct death ritual was a necessity.

The Hittites knew both body and cremation burials . The taknaz dā rituals point to body burials , in which a person threatened by death had to lie down like a dead person in order to "rise again" from the earth after the threat was averted. Cremations, on the other hand, were the rule in the Hittite royal family of the Great Empire. In the 2nd millennium BC According to archaeological evidence, cremation became more and more common, although there could be cemeteries with both urns and burials. Various objects could be used as urns. So pithoi are known that were covered with stones or cups. Jugs with a bird's beak spout were also used as urns. Burials took place in the form of pit graves, pithos graves or stone box graves. In the İlica cemetery, the graves were marked by rows of stone monoliths.

The type of burial or funeral ritual used by the Hittites may depend on the type of cause of death. For example, a dead person who had been struck by lightning had to be ritually cleansed by a priest of the weather god before being buried . There is a possibility that the Hittites were washing bodies. This is indicated in a passage in Ḫattušilis I 's will, in which the sick king asks the woman Ḫaštayar to wash him, to hold him on her breast and to protect him on her breast in / with the earth.

At the burial, broken objects were given to the deceased as grave goods, probably in the belief that the "souls" of the objects could leave their material shell, destroyed like the body of the deceased, to be revived like their owner in the afterlife. Possible grave goods included - in addition to clothing - various cattle such as cattle, horses, mules and sheep, as well as broken farm implements and a piece of lawn. These grave goods were related to the Hittite idea of ​​the afterlife as pasture. Animals were usually sacrificed in their entirety, in the case of equine species, sometimes only their skulls. The previously mentioned herd and pack animals were also supplemented by pigs. Broken pottery and libation vessels also served as grave goods. In a Hittite ritual text, a woman received, among other things, a spindle and a kureššar cloth as grave goods.

The royal burial ritual

Burial rituals have only been handed down for royal burials. The funeral rites for members of the royal family were performed in the capital Ḫattuša or in the old royal city of Zalpa . The death of a member of the royal family was considered a great misfortune (heth. Šalliš waštaiš ) because the death of the person responsible for connecting people with the gods put the whole country at great risk because the connection with the gods was broken was. The body of the deceased was cremated. The funeral ritual served to introduce the dead into the community of family ancestors and to begin his / her ancestor cult. During the cremation, a rope was burned and the deceased shouted “If you are going to go to the pasture, don't pull the rope!” To cut the connection to life. At the same time, the soul of the deceased member of the royal family was sacrificed together with deities and ancestral spirits .

First, the body was burned on a stake. Meanwhile, the dead man's soul resided in a slaughtered plow ox. The next day women came to collect the leftover bones. The fire was put out with beer and wine. Then the bones were washed in an oil-filled silver kettle and wrapped in linen. They were then placed on a chair (in the case of a man) or a stool (in the case of a woman). The chair or stool possibly served as the place of residence of the soul during this burial phase. A funeral feast took place in the presence of the remains of the dead, at which a three-time ritual toast was performed on the soul of the dead. At the same time, a fruit image of the dead was erected in the middle of the pyre. Perhaps this image served as a symbol of the rebirth of the dead in the afterlife and of fertility. The actual burial ended with the transfer of the remains of the dead into a "stone house" (Sumerographic É.NA 4 ) (also "stone house of the deity" (Sumerographic É.NA 4 DINGIR LIM ), "stone house of the divine ancestors" (Heth. É. NA 4 DINGIR LIM addaš ), "House of Bones" (Heth. É ḫaštiyaš or ḫaštiyaš pir , Sumerographic É GIDIM), House of the Dead (Sumerographic É ŠA GIDIM)) called mausoleum, where the bones of the dead were placed on a bed. The existence of these “stone houses” has not yet been proven archaeologically. For ancestor worship in the "stone house" see the following section.

In the days following the actual burial, magical practices were carried out to allow the dead to reach the pasture of the blessed. An image of the deceased was sacrificed to the sun goddess of the earth as a substitute for him, as well as food and drinks, probably to pacify the underworld goddess and let her release the spirit of the king. The statue of the deceased was seated. She was driven back and forth on a cart between different places where different rituals took place. Text transmission breaks off before the events of the 14th and final day of the funeral rites are described, but it is considered unlikely that a statue that was used at funerals would later find its place in a sanctuary.

Ancestor worship

The Hittites called the ancestors or Zawalli "gods of the father" (Heth. DINGIR LIM addaš , sumerographic DINGIR (MEŠ) AB (B) U = ŠU, from hurr. En = ni atta = ni ) or "gods of the father" ( heth. addaš DINGIR MEŠ iš , from hurr. en (i) = na atta = ni = ve / i = na ), less often also as "grandfathers (and) grandmothers". The ancestors received food and drink offerings in the ancestral cult . In written sources, such sacrifices are only documented for the ruling families, but they will also have played a major role in other sections of the population. In particular, the members of the Hittite royal dynasties were able to receive a sacrificial cult that lasted for generations. The ancestors were considered protective deities of lower rank and were worshiped as such and called upon for their help. The living expected the ancestors to look after the living family members and, if they were properly venerated, bring them blessings and prosperity.

Places of ancestor worship associated with the palace were the “grandfather's house” (Heth. É ḫuḫḫaš ), the “stone house” and the ḫešta death temple.

The "stone house" was the burial place of members of the ruling family. They had a ritual facility and permanent staff, more like a temple complex than a simple grave. They were also equipped with fields, orchards and vineyards, herds of cattle and sheep. Certain cities and professional groups had to pay tribute to the “stone house”. She and her descendants were not allowed to marry outside because they were ritually contaminated through contact with the dead. The "stone house" was exempt from all taxes and could not be sold. Gold-coated statues of the deceased could be set up in the “stone house”. It was in a ritual connection with the ḫešta house. The “stone house” seems to have been under the protection of the deceased's patron deity. A relief shows Chamber B in Yazılıkaya , the presumed burial place of Tudḫaliya IV , the great king the great king in the embrace of the god Sarruma . Ḫattušili III. dedicated his "stone house" according to his apology to his patron goddess Šauška of Šamuḫa .

The ḫešta temple of the dead, which was used to worship the dead goddess Lelwani and the deities of the Hattic tradition associated with Lelwani , was also dedicated to ancestor worship. In Hesta -House statues were beopfert deceased members of the royal family. A fire burned in front of the temple that seems to be related to the custom of the cremation of the dead.

In honor of dead kings or queens, memorials were also built, which were referred to as "eternal peaks" (Heth. NA 4 ḫekur SAG.UŠ or ḫekur for short ). These cult sites did not necessarily contain the remains of the dead worshiped there, but could contain statues of the same. Similar to stone houses, ḫekur houses could also stand under the protection of protective deities of the dead worshiped there. Well-known examples are the ḫekur house of the great king Šuppiluliuma I under the protection of the LAMMA god and the ḫekur house of the great king Muwatalli II in Tarḫuntašša , which was protected by the weather god . Other ḫekur houses were under the protection of the deities Pirwa or Kammamma .

The "grandfather's house" or the "grandfather's palace" (Heth. É.GAL ḫuḫḫaš ) was primarily associated with the dynastic ancestor cult. Sometimes it still had the addition of "his majesty" (Sumerographic D UTU ŠI ). Similar to “stone houses”, the “grandfather's house” was a cult place with its own property and staff. In addition to Ḫattuša, there was a “grandfather's house” in Katama and Šamuḫa , which were also Hittite capitals at different times.

The ancestral spirits could also grant visions . A great king Tudḫaliya, for example, received a dream vision from his ancestors while he was staying in the “grandfather's house”. But the dead could also be summoned according to the Babylonian rite.

Ghosts of the dead

After death and the separation of the soul from the body, the deceased entered the hereafter as spirit beings. Spirits of the dead (Heth. Akkant- , Sumerographic GIDIM) also had souls, similar to humans. The relationship between spirit and soul was probably similar to that between body and soul before death, so that spirits of the dead were apparently considered to be “more physical” than souls. They were probably immaterial, but had a kind of visible body. Spirits of the dead who were improperly buried or received no ancestral offerings, for example, could cause great distress to the living. Bitterness and enmity in life could also induce a deceased to take revenge from the grave. The danger posed by spirits of the dead was attempted with the help of magical cleansing rituals.

Ideas of the afterlife

The Hittites knew different and contradicting ideas about the afterlife. What they all had in common, however, was that the realm of the dead was located in the far west.

The underground realm of the dead

The Hittites knew an underground realm of the Mesopotamian style. This lay in the dark earth, where the life substance / soul of man descended. This underworld, referred to in Hittite texts as tenawa underworld districts, has been described as an evil and desolate place where the soul cannot recognize its relatives and neighbors because the tenawa keep them in ignorance. In addition, the souls there had to feed on dirt and brackish water. According to Hittite belief, souls who had become incomplete through death came to the Tenawa districts. Similarly, the Mesopotamian underworld was a dark house whose inhabitants lived on dirt and clay. This house, which is surrounded by seven wall rings, seems to have been known to the Hittites as well, as Hittite texts mention seven doors of the underworld with associated bolted beams, which a porter is responsible for opening them.

The completion of the soul

In order not to have to end up in the evil tenawa underworld, it was of the utmost importance for the soul to regain its completeness (heth. Iyatar ). She received help from the bees, the eagle, the laḫanza bird (the seagull?) And the ḫuwalaš fish. These animals provide the soul with those materials that the soul needs for perfection. The bees go on a three to four day journey and bring the matter of the mountains, the plains and the plowed field to the soul. The laḫanza bird brings the matter of the sea, the ḫuwalaš fish the matter of the river and the eagle the matter of the sky. Then the desired (the matter (?)) Is struck with anger. The billy goat strikes it with its hoof, the ram with its horns, the ewe with its nose and the tearful goddess of the mother or mother goddess strikes it with her tears. By beating, matter is "opened" for the nine body parts and the soul is completed.

The ways of the dead

They also seemed to know a way into the hereafter, since in the death ritual the deceased was wished that his ways should be anointed with oil. According to a Hittite ritual text, the completed soul takes the great way, the invisible way, the invisible (?) Way that the "Lord of the Way" has arranged for it. The “Lord of the Way” seems to be a kind of psychopompos , a soul guide. On that path, the soul refused not only to seek out the evil tenawa underworld regions, but also, since it considered itself godlike and pure, to seek out the arušan of mortal people or the dašanatta place, where it was afraid of falling into the river or pond. The only place the soul wanted to be led to was the pasture.

The Dead Street is another feature of the afterlife that the Hittites shared with Sumerians and Akkadians . Correspondingly, the Hittites referred to the road of the dead sumerographically as D KASKAL.KUR and hieroglyphic Luwian as (DEUS) VIA + TERRA. The Hittite Road of the Dead seems to have been understood as an underground waterway. In addition, a hattic rain ritual from Nerik speaks of nine underground lakes and rivers.

The realm of the dead as pasture

The Hittites knew another realm of the dead in the form of a cattle pasture, which was considered a place "where there are wonderful foals". There, the soul of the deceased who “goes to the pasture / meadow” led an existence as a shepherd and farmer. According to grave goods, the belief in a realm of the dead designed as a willow tree seems to have been widespread in all Hittite social classes. A funeral ritual text from Kizzuwatna also seems to indicate that not only the king and queen ended up on the pasture of the underworld. The one whose "Mother's Day" had come, whose mother took him by the hand and accompanied him there.

Deities of the underworld

The originally Hattic god of the underworld, who was also worshiped by the Hittites, was Lelwani . He was at the head of the chthonic deities worshiped in the ḫešta house . The deities who were worshiped in his entourage were the god of the day , Tašammat and Tašimmet , the sun goddess of Arinna , the goddesses of fate Ištuštaya and Papaya , Ḫašammeli and Zilipuri . Furthermore, the window, šitarzuna, the wood of the door bolt, rappa, the stove and the "years" belonged to the entourage of Lelwani. Most of that additional entourage consists of sacred cult objects. In the Hittite Empire, Lelwani was equated with the Hurrian underworld goddess Allatum and thus assumed a female gender. Allatum later completely replaced him at the head of the deities worshiped in the ḫešta Temple of the Dead.

Under Luwian influence the sun goddess of the earth became the mistress of the Hittite underworld. She was equated with the Hurrian underworld goddess Allani . The task of the sun goddess of the earth was to open the gates of the underworld and to purify the earth from impurity, malice and disease. She had a large retinue, consisting of a patron god, a vizier, various servants, an overseer of the eunuchs, an overseer of the hairdressers and the deities Ḫilašši , Darawa / Daraweš and Paraya . Similar to the chthonic aspect of the sun goddess of Arinna together with the goddesses of fate Ištuštaya and Papaya in the Hurrian area or in the Hurrian area the goddess Allani together with the goddesses of fate Ḫudena Ḫudellura determined the fate of a newborn human being, so the sun goddess of the earth took on this task together with the goddesses of fate Gulšeš .

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 158.
  2. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 205.
  3. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 158.
  4. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 158.
  5. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 207.
  6. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 201.
  7. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 201 f.
  8. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 202.
  9. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 159.
  10. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 158 f.
  11. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 202.
  12. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 159.
  13. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 203.
  14. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 159.
  15. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 167.
  16. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 203.
  17. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 203.
  18. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 202.
  19. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 205.
  20. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 167.
  21. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206.
  22. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204.
  23. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 161.
  24. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 161 f.
  25. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 161.
  26. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 162.
  27. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 203 f.
  28. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 164.
  29. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 216.
  30. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 164.
  31. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 165.
  32. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 162.
  33. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204.
  34. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 162.
  35. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 159.
  36. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 162.
  37. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 163.
  38. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 164.
  39. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204.
  40. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204 f.
  41. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 205.
  42. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 163.
  43. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 216.
  44. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204.
  45. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 216.
  46. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 165.
  47. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 216.
  48. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 216 f.
  49. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 161.
  50. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 164 f.
  51. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 217.
  52. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 165.
  53. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 166.
  54. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 166.
  55. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204.
  56. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 204 f.
  57. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 159.
  58. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 163 f.
  59. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 164.
  60. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 179 f.
  61. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 205.
  62. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206 f.
  63. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 160.
  64. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 180.
  65. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 207.
  66. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206.
  67. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 207.
  68. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 160.
  69. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 180.
  70. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206.
  71. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206.
  72. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 205.
  73. ↑ Volkert Haas, Heidemarie Koch: Religions of the ancient Orient: Hittites and Iran . Göttingen 2011, p. 206.
  74. ^ Piotr Taracha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 161.
  75. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 49.
  76. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 124.
  77. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 132.
  78. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 109.
  79. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 50.
  80. ↑ Piotr Tararcha: Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia . Wiesbaden 2009, p. 50.