Instruction design

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Instructional design ( English Instructional Design , in short, ID or Instructional Systems Design , in short ISD ) or instructional design is the systematic planning, the process and the evaluation of learning environments and learning materials. The term instructional design comes from the USA and was coined by Robert Gagné . The research has been largely shaped and funded by the requirements of the US military.

The aim is to create environmental conditions that are suitable for promoting skills. The procedure is based on cognitive psychological principles, the effectiveness of which is specifically checked empirically and, if necessary, leads to adjustments. Various models are grouped under instruction design for the conception of lessons and training. In some cases, instruction design is used as an alternative to the term didactics , which is widespread in German-speaking countries and which has long been shaped by a humanities tradition. However, instruction design is distinguished by the following features:

  • ID is based on learning and cognitive psychology .
  • ID aims at the empirical examination of theoretical statements and the proof of the effectiveness of the chosen teaching strategies and methods.
  • ID relates to the conception of lessons and company training, but is also linked to the use of information and communication technologies for teaching and learning purposes.
  • For a long time, didactics was understood as the theory of school teaching. ID refers to teaching and learning in all fields of action .

The instruction design thus offers an approach for the systematic planning, development and evaluation of learning materials and learning environments that are strongly influenced by the use of various media. In contrast to classic teaching or teaching, instruction here describes any systematic arrangement of environmental conditions that is suitable for promoting competencies.

development

The term instruction design goes back to Robert M. Gagné, whose research in this regard was largely funded by the US military. In terms of development, a distinction is made between the instruction design of the first generation ( ID1 ) and the models of the instruction design of the second generation ( ID2 ), which have been developed since the 1980s. Based on the mother of the ID models , the original Gagné model, various models have developed. The newer ones are partly geared towards modern forms of teaching, such as project teaching. The consideration of modern media makes these models interesting for the conception of electronic learning environments. The instruction design also provides useful tools to complement other modern approaches to teaching, such as blended learning, etc.

  • ID1 was still strongly behaviorist , based on the basic assumption that the learner is a passive recipient and that learning is a function of teaching.
  • The models of the ID2, since the 1980s, are characterized by a changed understanding of teaching and learning and formulated according to the corresponding requirements.
  • Constructivism gained increasing importance from the end of the 20th century . This learning theory regards the individual experiences of the learner as a decisive criterion for his or her learning success.
  • Even the Connectivism influenced the instructional design at the beginning of the digital age. In this theory, learners are no longer viewed as isolated from one another, but rather as networked. The idea of ​​learning in networks has been implemented in numerous online learning platforms , for example .

Elements of the instruction design according to Reinmann

One possible subdivision of the term, as suggested by the psychologist Gabi Reinmann in her study text, can be made on the basis of the decisions that have to be made during the planning and design of learning units. Each of these decisions is made in the context of specific teaching-learning objectives that can be assigned to one of the following three main components of didactic design:

  1. Mediation ( material side of teaching ): "describes a process in which an actor (a group of actors) passes something on to an addressee (a group of addressees)". Reinmann's understanding of mediation must be clearly differentiated from what is understood as a didactic triangle in the teaching context .
  2. Activation ( procedural side of teaching ): "all describable measures that serve to ensure that learners deal productively or reproductively with the content that is the focus of interest."
  3. Supervision ( social side of teaching ): "all social interactions between teachers and learners, under certain conditions also between learners among themselves, [...] which serve to give learners feedback on the results of their learning activities, in case of difficulties to help to give emotional-motivational support and in this way to create a social and emotional-motivational framework for mediation and activation processes. "

Depending on the overall objective, the three components can be assigned different weightings, but only all three together form a didactic scenario.

Mediation

In the sense of the instruction design, the teaching of learning-relevant things is intentionally carried out by a mediator (e.g. teacher) and opposite to this is the learner who takes up the content. The resulting learning is known as receptive learning . The new content is classified in the already existing cognitive structures of the learner ( subsumption ). A corresponding structuring of learning content can support subsumption . However, knowledge of receptive learning is required from the mediator. An important model that plays a role here is the cognitive load theory . According to Reinmann, three cognitive loads are particularly relevant and must be taken into account in this context:

  1. Intrinsic stress : arises from the complexity of the learning content and its own internal networking. Vocabulary learning in this sense is classified as a low intrinsic burden.
  2. Extrinsic burden : arises from the way in which the learning content is presented to the learner.
  3. Learning-related stress : arises from learning and is required to anchor learning content in long-term memory. This burden is desirable in this sense.

When imparting knowledge, different contents can be used that have different characteristics. Basically, linguistic or pictorial content is used for communication. However, there is further content based on this, which can be designed dynamically or interactively .

Linguistic content

Linguistic content and texts can be used in instruction design to convey and present content. A distinction can be made between the written word (e.g. a text) and spoken word (e.g. audio files). A combination of these two forms can also be used, for example in the form of lectures.

  • Text: When using texts, coherence is important for the flow of meaning and understanding. Texts are not tied to time and place, and they are easy to structure. However, they also only provide visual feedback and absorbing and understanding texts requires a high degree of concentration.
  • Lectures: There are different types of lectures: lectures, spontaneous input phases or prepared lectures. They all involve the combination of the spoken and written word. This combination makes it possible to turn knowledge into an event which, when conveyed, turns the lecturer into a performer. The possibility of multimedia design can provide an overview of difficult issues. Lectures are less suitable for purely conveying information. There is also a strong dependency of the effectiveness on the lecturer.
  • Audio: Audio files contain the spoken word in an asynchronous form. This means that the audio material is not volatile and is not tied to either place or time. The use of sound effects makes it possible to direct attention and create a dialogical design. Audio material does not provide any visual feedback and technical requirements (recording and playback) must be given for its use.

Pictorial content

photos

Pictorial representations can present difficult-to-describe facts in a more understandable and clear manner. They are more memorable than texts and attract more attention. It also prevents the spoken word from becoming volatile. A distinction is made between different types of images.

  • Representative images (e.g. photos , line drawings ): There is a similarity between the object depicted and the representation. They serve to illustrate useful details or details that are not accessible to the naked eye. They can also explain how objects work or the structure
  • Logical images (e.g. diagrams , models, etc.): Logical images, on the other hand, are abstract and can represent non-spatial properties. Among other things, they are well suited to conveying qualitative and quantitative relationships.

When designing pictures, knowledge of various design criteria is important in order to reduce problems of perception and understanding and to make successful learning more likely. These include the following criteria:

  • Syntactic criteria ( gestalt laws ): good shape, similarity, proximity
  • Semantic criteria: linking visual features with meaning
  • Pragmatic criteria: align design to intended use

However, images can only support the learning process if they convey new information and are understandable for the viewer.

Text-picture combination

A combination of text and image is generally recommended and in principle you never learn with images alone, as they are usually always embedded in a context in the form of text (e.g. signatures and legends) or audio (in the case of multimedia content) . Pictures are well suited to support reading and also have a verifiable effect on understanding and learning success, as they stimulate emotional and cognitive processes at the same time. They serve as a reminder, relieve cognitively and increase the transfer performance .

presentations

Presentations also use multimedia to support a lecture. The quality of the lectures and presentations strongly depend on the speaker. The exact coordination of visual and auditory content as well as the presentation method are decisive.

Dynamic content

In contrast to the pictorial content, the dynamic content is animations and videos. These differ from the pictorial content in that the presentation or its properties change within a certain period of time. Animations and videos create the illusion of a moving image in the viewer through a temporal sequence of individual images (see animation ). The targeted use of animations or videos can have certain advantages :

Benefits of animation
  • Promote process learning
  • The level of detail can be changed so that properties that were not previously visible become visible
  • Additional information is shown (changes over time)
  • Relevant information is clearly perceptible
Advantages of videos
  • Enable learning on the model
  • May contain moving pictures, spoken and written language, sound effects, music
  • Offer different possibilities to present content in a certain way (change of perspective, cross-fades and cuts)

However, when using dynamic content, the following design criteria must be taken into account, as otherwise the use of this content is not beneficial for learning:

  • syntactic: the content should be of good quality and take into account the principles of human perception and attention
  • semantic: representation codes and viewing habits should be included.
  • pragmatic: the purpose of the video or animation should be explained to the learner.

In order to use videos in a targeted manner, it is also important that you only embed videos in environments that are not intended for entertainment but as a learning method. It should also be ensured that easy interaction options, such as B. fast forward or rewind, pause or slow motion are given so that the learner can view the content at his own discretion.

Interactive content

As already explained in the previous paragraph about the use of videos, the interactivity of media environments (text, audio, image, animation, video) can make a significant contribution to learning success. According to Schulmeister, six levels of interactivity can be distinguished:

  1. Level: No interactivity, only reception of content.
  2. Level: Multimedia components can be selected and manipulated.
  3. Level: The form of representation can be changed.
  4. Level: Multimedia components are created dynamically through input from the learner.
  5. Level: Learner can create content himself.
  6. Level: Dynamic content provides learner feedback based on input.
Benefits of interaction
  • a) Increase freedom through user control
  • b) Increase motivation through questions, prompts and feedback
  • c) Informativity increased through references to errors
  • d) Facilitate understanding by exploring and making mistakes
  • e) External control of the learning process

The consequences of manipulating the learner enable them to better explore and understand relationships. The system provides him with supportive feedback. When learning with simulations, it is important to experiment, i.e. to form and check hypotheses , which, however, causes problems for many learners. One approach to making interaction easier for learners is increasing immersion ; H. to put the learner in an artificial world through increasingly realistic representations.

Simulations / Microworlds

A simulation differs from animation in its high degree of interactivity. This means that the learner can change system parameters and actively influence the course of the animation. Mathematical models determine how the simulation reacts to changes made by the learner. Since simulations invite interaction with a technical system, they can also be described as closed systems or closed virtual worlds .

Design of simulations: Since interactive content is more complex and the interaction has to be learned first, various verbal instruction notes are recommended that relate to known problems (create hypotheses, check, interpret results). In addition to following the parameter manipulation, the interpretation of the effects can also be supported by explanatory feedback. In addition, planning and monitoring activities should be instructed. The system should have an adaptive capability, i. H. Adapt degrees of freedom and complexity to the level of performance. Limiting the exploration by means of external structuring is particularly useful for beginners. Exercises that train the functions and activities should precede the simulation.

The assignment to one of the main components of the didactic design is not clear here, since interactive media content bridges the gap between the design of teaching material and the design of tasks to activate relevant learning processes. There is therefore a smooth transition between the mediation and activation components. Independent, productive services are neither intended nor necessary (mediation aspect), but if the exploration character is in the foreground, an assignment to the activation component is justified.

activation

In order to activate the learner within a didactic scenario, they should be given tasks that encourage them to deal intensively with the learning content. Reinmann distinguishes between four types of task design:

  • Knowledge exercise tasks
  • Knowledge development tasks
  • Tasks with knowledge transformation
  • Tasks with knowledge creation

Design of tasks

The transfer of knowledge should be combined with suitable tasks that help to draw attention to certain things. This should be done systematically so that a structure is recognizable. Embedded images are a way of conveying knowledge and activating learning activity. These encourage people to visualize the content they have received and to restructure them in this way (e.g. Toulmin maps, e-portfolios or networks of terms). Conversations can also be used sensibly to impart knowledge. A distinction is made between four main forms of conversation:

  • close conversation
  • goal-oriented conversation
  • problematic heuristic conversation
  • free conversation

Knowledge practice and knowledge development

According to Reinmann, knowledge practice and knowledge development can be assigned to reproductive learning. This means that the learner not only receives the knowledge and processes it internally, but also deals externally in an active way with given tasks. Reinmann attributes a particularly important role to these two concepts in didactic scenarios that pursue cognitive teaching goals. Both concepts are characterized by a strong control of the teacher. The control of the teacher results from the fact that he can plan what is learned in what form and thus can narrow down the taught content and learning outcomes himself. The teacher can thus precisely determine how the learning output of the corresponding input on the part of the teacher will be developed. The knowledge exercise deals with the acquisition of existing knowledge, while the knowledge development deals with the reception of new content.

Methods of practicing knowledge

Methods of practicing knowledge are based on given content, which includes various methods, within the framework of which the learning content imparted is consolidated by the learner. An important feature of tasks for practicing knowledge is the repetition aspect: Tasks are repeated again and again in order to achieve the teaching objective. Exercises can be classified based on the degree of unity. Closed exercises provide a strict framework within which the learner acts. The learner cannot answer the task freely, but has to choose from given solutions ( e.g. multiple choice tasks). For closed exercises there is only one correct solution that has been defined in advance. In the case of semi-open exercises, learners have the option of introducing their own solutions within a tightly specified framework (for example, sentence completion tasks or fill in the blank ). Here it is possible that only one as well as several correct solutions are defined for the task. Open exercises can be worked on by the learner without restriction (for example free-text tasks). With open exercises, several correct solutions are always possible, which is why the use of feedback (in the context of supervision) and the provision of sample solutions are particularly relevant here.

Further examples of methods for practicing knowledge:

  • Closed exercises: identification tasks, alternative tasks, association selection tasks, supplementary selection tasks, substitution selection tasks, extension selection tasks, assignment tasks, rearrangement tasks, deputy tasks
  • Semi-open exercises: supplementary tasks, substitution tasks, development tasks, conversion tasks
  • Open exercises: design tasks, interpretation tasks, association tasks
Methods of knowledge development

Methods of knowledge development can equally be characterized by their predefined structure, but in contrast to methods of knowledge practice, they are freer and the results less predictable. Instead of consolidating knowledge through repetition, the focus of methods for knowledge development, in contrast to knowledge practice, is on supporting the independent development of knowledge. Structuring aids are a type of method for activating the development of knowledge. Structuring aids enable the learner to better understand the structure of the content being dealt with and to proceed more systematically. The SQ3R method is an example of structuring methods for promoting knowledge development through text preparation . In addition, logical images can be used to activate knowledge development on the part of the learners. Concept maps help, for example, to visualize received content in the form of concepts and their relationships to one another and thus to restructure them. Also e-portfolios can support activities of knowledge discovery through the promotion of self-reflection of the learner by learner for example are aware of the learning contents have been well understood, or where there is pent-up demand. In addition to structuring aids, methods of knowledge development also include forms of conversation. Discussions among learners encourage the activation of previous knowledge and the exchange of experiences, knowledge and arguments. An example of a form of group discussion to activate knowledge development is the ball bearing discussion , in which learners hold discussions on the same topic with different partners by shifting their positions in two concentric circles.

Further examples of methods for knowledge development:

Knowledge transformation and knowledge creation

The concepts of knowledge transformation and knowledge creation can be distinguished from those of knowledge practice and knowledge development, since they can be assigned to productive learning . While the promotion of reproductive learning aims to allow the learners to develop the conveyed content themselves, so that the teaching objectives of the teacher are largely "reproduced" in terms of content, productive learning is characterized by a knowledge transfer in which learners apply knowledge to new contexts and thus independently "produce" new knowledge. Furthermore, in contrast to knowledge practice and knowledge development, control here largely lies with the learner. Examples for the design of tasks for knowledge transformation:

care, support

While knowledge transfer can in most cases be carried out without specific supervision, this is usually not the case with knowledge activation . During productive or reproductive learning phases, learners often depend on receiving feedback (for example in the form of answers to questions asked or solutions to tasks) in order to complete the learning process. Feedback on learning outcomes as well as on learning processes is an important form of supervision. The function of feedback plays an important role, which can be cognitive as well as motivational. The cognitive feedback points out mistakes and suggestions for improvement to the learner, whereas the motivational feedback focuses above all on the learner's strengths. Not only the function of the feedback, but also the way in which feedback is conveyed to the learner, can happen in different ways. The teacher can convey digital feedback, for example via audio or video messages, or choose the direct route and verbally communicate with the learner. In addition to conveying the feedback, the teacher has the further task of motivating the learner. According to Keller (1983), teachers should pay particular attention to four factors when designing their courses. 1. Attention: The learner's attention should be attracted; 2. Relevance: The relevance and significance of the learning content should be conveyed; 3. Confidence: Confidence in success should be supported; 4. Satisfaction: Satisfaction on the part of the learner should be made possible.

Supervision-free teaching

Exceptions to didactic designs that can be carried out without any supervision are so-called self-learning media. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) can be cited as an example .

See also

Literature (selection)

  • Robert M. Gagné, Leslie J. Briggs, Walter W. Wagner: Principles of Instructional Design. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, Fort Worth, TX 1992, ISBN 0-03-034757-2 .
  • M. Lang, G. Pätzold: Multimedia in education and training. Basics and case studies on web-based learning. German Economic Service, Cologne 2002, ISBN 3-87156-418-4 .
  • Helmut M. Niegemann: New learning media. Design, develop, use. Hans Huber, Göttingen 2001, ISBN 3-456-83448-9 .
  • HM Niegemann, S. Hessel, M. Deimann, D. Hochscheid-Mauel, K. Aslanski, G. Kreuzberger: Compendium E-Learning. Springer, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-642-18677-7 .
  • HM Niegemann, S. Domagk, S. Hessel, A. Hein, M. Hupfer, A. Zobel: Compendium of multimedia learning. Springer-Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-37225-7 .
  • Gabi Reinmann: Didactic design. From learning theory to design strategy. In: Martin Ebner, Sandra Schön (Hrsg.): Textbook for learning and teaching with technologies. epubli, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-8442-0437-7 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ 1987 coined by the Göttingen educationalist Karl-Heinz Flechsig
  2. ↑ cf. Niegemann et al. 2004, p. 19.
  3. ↑ cf. Lang & Pätzold 2002.
  4. ↑ a b c Gabi Reinmann: Study text Didactic Design. Munich 2013. learn-unibw. de / sites / default / files / studientext_dd_april13. pdf Accessed July 15, 2013
  5. ↑ Gabi Reinmann: Interdisciplinary Communication Studies: An attempt at a development from the perspective of didactics. Research start. In: Consideration - Knowledge - Ethics. Volume 23, No. 3, 2012, pp. 232-340.
  6. ↑ Rolf Schulmeister: Taxononomy of Interactivity of Multimedia - A Contribution to the Current Metadata Discussion (Taxonomy of Interactivity in Multimedia - A Contribution to the Acutal Metadata Discussion) . In: it - Information Technology . tape 44 , no. 4 , 1 April 2002 ISSN  2196-7032 , doi : 10.1524 / itit.2002.44.4.193 ( degruyter.com [Retrieved on June 8, 2017]).
  7. ^ DG Rey: E-Learning. Theories, design recommendations and research. Huber, Bern 2009, p. 105.
  8. ↑ S. Jolie, U. Katzky, K. Bredl, F.kap, D. Krause: Simulations and simulated worlds - learning in immersive learning environments. In: M. Ebner, S. Schön (ed.): Textbook for teaching and learning with technologies. 2011. URL: http://l3t.tugraz.at/index.php/LehrbuchEbner10/article/view/32/22
  9. ^ LP Rieber: Multimedia learning in games, simulations, and microworlds. In: RE Mayer (Ed.): Cambridge handbook of multimedialearning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, pp. 549-567.
  10. ^ DG Rey: E-Learning. Theories, design recommendations and research. Huber, Bern 2009, p. 106 f.
  11. ↑ D. Graf: What types of tasks are there? In: Mathematical and natural science lessons. Vol. 54, No. 7, 2001, pp. 422-424.
  12. ↑ G. Macke, U. Hanke, P. Viehmann: University didactics : teaching, presenting, examining, advising. With a collection of methods for teaching better. Beltz, 2012, ISBN 978-3-407-29224-7 .
  13. ↑ JM Keller: Motivational design of instruction. In: CM Reigeluth (Ed.): Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status . Erlbaum, Hillsdale NJ 1983, ISBN 0-89859-275-5 , pp. 383-433 .

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