Italian declination

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The declension of Italian describes how nouns (that is, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) change according to the categories number and gender ; Cases are only rudimentary recognizable in Italian for a few pronouns . Written, dialectal or verbal forms and sentences are completely bracketed below and do not have to be used orally at least; however, if only individual letters or words are bracketed in a group of words, these are optional or are only used under certain circumstances. Outdated to medieval (e.g. Dantesque ) forms are marked with †; Often the underlying Latin or the reconstructed Vulgar Latin form is given in italics. To clarify the emphasis, many words are given additional accents, of which only those on the last letter in the word are orthographically mandatory.

Special initial sound

If a noun begins with one of the following letter combinations, special endings apply to articles and preceding adjectives:

  • s + consonant (e.g. specchio, studente "mirror, student")
  • z, x (e.g. lo zaino "the backpack")
  • gn (e.g. gli gnocchi "the gnocchi")
  • ps, pn (e.g. uno psicologo "a psychologist")
  • i + vowel, y + vowel (e.g. uno yacht "a yacht")

The gender

In Italian, a distinction must be made between grammatical and natural gender; this is illustrated by a German example: "the girl" is neutral (neuter) according to the grammatical gender, because it bears the article "that" and its attributes also appear in the neuter; however, the word designates a female individual, which is why his natural sex is female.

The grammatical gender

In Italian, almost all nouns are either masculine or feminine in terms of grammatical gender, the neutral gender as such no longer exists:
il buono "the good, the good", il nuovo "the new, what is new" - di nuovo "anew ", l'italiano " the Italian, the Italian (the Italian language) ", questo " this, this "etc.
In contrast to the difference animate (male / female) <> inanimate (thing / abstract), the following statements must be made:

  • Most Latin nouns of neutral gender appear masculine in the Romance languages:
    mysterium (n.)> Il mistero (m.) "Secret", cor (n.)> Il cuore (m.) "Heart", etc.
  • The following words make a clear distinction between animate and inanimate:
belebt           unbelebt
chi?             che?         "wer? - was?"
nessuno          niente       "niemand - nichts"
tutti            tutto        "alle - alles (Plural)"
chiunque         checché      "jedermann/wer auch immer - was auch immer"
qualcuno         qualcosa     "jemand - etwas"
tutti, tutte "alle" in adjektivischer Position
   kann sich natürlich auch auf unbelebte Dinge beziehen!
   Gleiches gilt auch für nessuno.
→ che (oft ergänzt durch nachfolgendes cosa "Sache")
   dient u. a. auch als Relativpronomen ohne Geschlechtsunterschied.
  • The noun ciò "dies" is only used for inanimate things : ciò è vero "that is true", ciò che voglio dirti è importante " what I want to tell you is important";
    two specifically male counterparts are (questi, quegli) "the former / that, the latter / this".
  • Also: il troppo "too much"

The natural sex

  • A number of nouns refer specifically to male or female persons with a particular stem:
Männlich           Weiblich
padre              madre        "Vater - Mutter"
fratello           sorella      "Bruder - Schwester"
marito             moglie       "Ehemann - Ehefrau"
uomo               donna        "Mann - Frau"
gallo              gallina      "Hahn - Henne"
torro              mucca        "Stier - Kuh"
...
  • For many other nouns and adjectives, gender is expressed by a special ending:
Männlich           Weiblich
figlio             figlia        "Sohn - Tochter"
nonno              nonna         "Großvater - Großmutter"
avvocato           avvocatessa   "Anwalt/Verfechter - Anwältin/Klatschtante"
poeta              poetessa      "Dichter - Dichterin"
editore            editrice      "Verleger/Herausgeber - Verlegerin/Herausgeberin"
...
  • For some, this gender distinction is not possible due to their origin:
Männlich/Weiblich
il/la turista                    "der Tourist/die Touristin"
il/la nipote                     "der Neffe/die Nichte"
il/la tigre                      "der Tiger/die Tigerin"
...
Bei Substantiven auf -ista gibt es aber im Plural einen sichtbaren Unterschied:
Männlich           Weiblich
i turisti          le turiste    "die Touristen - die Touristinnen"
...
  • Many animal species have only one grammatical gender; the natural can be specified by femmina "Weib (chen)" or maschio "Männchen":
il ragno: la femmina del ragno    "die Spinne: das Spinnenweibchen"
la rana:  la rana maschio         "der männliche Frosch"
...

The clearly feminine forms relate to individual persons or groups of persons who are purely female . The male counterparts, on the other hand, can also be used unspecified:

Männlich           Weiblich
figlio             figlia        "Kind/Sohn - Tochter"
figli              figlie        "Kinder/Söhne - Töchter"
uomo               donna         "Mensch/Mann - Frau"
uomini             donne         "Menschen/Männer - Frauen"
italiani           italiane      "Italiener (allgemein) - Italienerinnen"
questi             queste        "diese - diese weiblichen Personen"
...
Um das Geschlecht auf eindeutig männlich festzulegen,
kann man das Adjektiv maschio "männlich" ergänzen:
i miei figli maschi "meine Söhne" <> le mie figlie       "meine Töchter"

Numbers

Italian knows the numbers singular (singular) and plural (plural).

The regular plural

Adjectives and nouns are essentially inflected the same way. In masculine, on -co or -go end, usually a "h" is inserted before the ending to the plosivische get pronunciation: l'albergo → l'alberg h i ( "hotels" without additional hour would to speak the 'g' as [dsch]).

  • Masculine turns final a / e / io / o into -i :
    il problema → i problemi "the problems", il cane → i cani "the dogs", il figlio → i figli "the children", il fuoco → i fuoc h i "the fire"
  • Femina also transform final e / ie / o into i , but final a into -e :
    l'arte → le arti "the arts", la moglie → le mogli "the wives", la mano → le mani "the hands"; l'amica → le amic h e "the girlfriends"
  • There is no change for any other ending

However, these rules still need to be refined:

  • If the last 'i' is accented in a masculine noun that ends in -io , it remains in the plural: lo zio (= zìo) → gli zii "die uncle (s)".
  • The insertion of an h does not happen with all masculine nouns ending in -co / -go . Exceptions are:
    • amìci / nemìci / greci / porci "friends / enemies / Greeks / pigs".
    • many nouns stressed on the third from last syllable: sìndaco → sìndaci "mayor", aspàrago → aspàragi "asparagus".
      There are also exceptions to this, however, which should insert an h : càrichi / epìloghi / incàrichi / òbblighi / pìzzichi / pròfughi / vàlichi "Burdens / epilogues / tasks / duties / prizes / refugees / geogr.
      Also un busy nouns logo to tend h added: psicologi <> Cataloghi "Psychologists <> Catalogs".

Special plural forms

Irregular plural

Some nouns have an irregular plural:

un'ala        → le ali                      "Flügel"
un'arma       → le armi                     "Waffen/Kampfmittel"
un bue        → i buoi                      "Ochsen"
il curriculum → i curricula                 "Lebensläufe"
un dio        → gli dei                     "Götter"
un tempio     → i templi                    "Tempel"
un uomo       → gli uomini                  "Männer/Menschen"

Change of sex

For some nouns that had a neutral gender in Latin, the old plural is retained in -a , but the gender has been adjusted so that the singular is masculine and the plural feminine:

Singular               Plural
il centinaiole centinaia      "Hunderter"
il migliaiole migliaia       "Tausender"
il migliole miglia         "Meilen
il paiole paia           "Paare"
il risole risa           "Lachen/Gelächter"
l'uovole uova           "Eier"

Double shapes

  • Some masculine forms have two plural forms (one masculine, the other feminine), but each with a different meaning:
Singular                   Plural
il braccio "Arm"                   →   i bracci      "Arme" von Flüssen, Kränen, Lampen, Kreuzen...
                                        le braccia    "Arme" als Körperteile
budello "Darm; Schlauch, Gasse, schmaler Gang"
                                   →   i budelli     "Gassen, Gänge"
                                        le budella    "Eingeweide, Gedärme"
il calcagno "Ferse"                →   i calcagni    "Fersen"
                                        stare alla calcagna "jdm. auf den Fersen sein"
il ciglio "Augenwimper, Rand, Rain"
                                   →   i cigli       "Ränder"
                                        le ciglia     "Augenwimpern"
il corno "Horn"                    →   i corni       "Hörner" als Musikinstrumente
                                        le corna      "Hörner" von Tieren
il dito "Finger"                   →   i diti        einzelne "Finger"
                                        le dita       "die Finger"
il filo "Band, Draht, Garn, Halm, Kabel, Leine, Schneide, Spur"
                                   →   i fili        "Fäden, Schnüre, Kabel..."
                                        le fila       "Fäden" einer Handlung
il fondamento "Grundlage, Basis, Begründung, Fundament"
                                   →   i fondamenti  grundlegende "Prinzipien"
                                        le fondamenta "Grundfesten, Grundmauern"
il frutto "Frucht"                 →   i frutti      "Früchte" eines einzelnen Baumes,
                                                       Ergebnis einer Tätigkeit
                                        le/la frutta  "Obst"
il gesto "Gebärde, Geste"          →   i gesti       "Gebärden"
                                        le gesta      "Taten"
il grido "(Auf)Schrei, Geschrei"  →   i gridi       "Tierrufe"
                                        le grida      "Schreie" von Menschen, "Gezeter"
il labbro "Lippe, Rand(lippe)"     →   i labbri      "Ränder" von Wunden, Vasen, Tassen...
                                        le labbra     "Lippen" als Körperteile
il lenzuolo "(Bett)Laken"          →   i lenzuoli    zwei oder mehr separate "Laken"
                                        le lenzuola   "Laken(paar)" zum Bettbeziehen
il membro "(Mit)Glied, Seite einer Gleichung"
                                   →   i membri      "Mitglieder" einer Gemeinschaft/Familie...
                                        le membra     "Glieder" als Körperteile
il muro "Mauer, Wand, Block"       →   i muri        "Wände"
                                        le mura       "(Stadt)mauern"
l'osso "Knochen"                   →   gli ossi      "Knochen" geschlachteter Tiere
                                        le ossa       "Gebeine", Menschenknochen
  • A few nouns have two plural forms with the same meaning:
il ginocchioi gionocchi / le gionocchia      "Knie"
il gomitoi gomiti / le gomita             "Ellenbogen"
il sopracciglioi sopraccigli / le sopracciglia  "Augenbrauen"
  • Some even have two singular and plural forms each with the same meaning:
l'orecchio / l'orecchiagli orecchi / le orecchie         "Ohren"
la strofa / la strofele strofe / le strofi             "Strophe"

Immutable nouns

With many nouns, singular and plural cannot be distinguished:

  • Many Femina on -ie :
una/le specie               "Spezies"
una/le serie                "Serie(n)"

This does not include: la moglie → le mogli "wives", la superficie → le superfici "surfaces", l'effigie → le effigi "images / portraits".

  • Words that don't end in unaccented -a , -e, or -o :
la/le crisi                 "Krise"
la/le città                 "Stadt"
il/i caffè                  "Kaffee/Café"
la/le virtù                 "Tugend"
...
  • Monosyllabic words:
il/i re                     "König"
lo/gli sci                  "Schi(lauf)"
  • Some of the masculines on -a :
il/i boia                   "Scharfrichter; Wahnsinns-, verdammt"
il/i gorilla                "Gorilla"
il/la/i/le sosia            "Doppelgänger, Double"
  • Abbreviations, even if they end in -a / -e / -o :
il/i cinema                 "Kino"
la/le foto                  "Photo"
...

Singularia Tantum

The following nouns and noun groups cannot form a plural at all:

  • Most abstracts:
la bellezza                 "Schönheit"
il valore                   "Tapferkeit, Wert, Geltung"
l'intelligenza              "Intelligenz"
...
  • Substance terms:
il bronzo                   "Bronze"
l'oro                       "Gold"
...
  • Food:
il grano                    "Weizen"
il latte                    "Milch"
il pepe                     "Pfeffer"
...
  • Month names:
il gennaio                  "Januar"
usw.
  • Diseases:
l'influenza                 "Grippe"
il morbillo                 "Masern"
...
  • Other:
l'aria                      "Luft, Miene, Anschein"
la fame - la sete           "Hunger - Durst"
il fiele                    "Groll/Galle"
il sangue                   "Blut"

Some of these nouns can be plural, but with a different meaning:

le arie                     "Arien; Wichtigtuerei/Getue; Reitfigur"
le bellezze                 "schöne Orte/Frauen"
i bronzi                    "Bronzegegenstände, Bronzemedaillen..."
i ferri                     "Werkzeuge"
i grani                     "Getreide"
i valori                    "Devisen, Wertsachen"

Pluralia Tantum

Some others, on the other hand, only appear in the plural:

  • Items made from similar components:
i calzoni                     "die Hose"
le forbici                    "die Schere"
le mutande                    "die Unterwäsche"
gli occhiali                  "die Brille"
  • Collective terms:
i dintorni                    "die Umgebung"
le macerie                    "der Schutt"
le stoviglie                  "das Geschirr"
le vettovaglie                "der Mundvorrat"
  • Some others that were plural in Latin:
le esequie                    "Begräbnis-/Totenfeier" (< ex-sequiae [Begleitung])
le ferie                      "Ferien"
le nozze                      "Eheschließung, Hochzeit" (< nuptiae)
i posteri                     "Nachwelt, Nachkommenschaft"
le tenebre                    "das Dunkel, die undurchsichtige Situation"

But there are also the following singular forms with a slightly different meaning:

la feria (historisch)         "der Ruhetag"
la tenebra                    "die Dunkelheit/Finsternis"

Irregular adjectives

Some adjectives have special forms if they are placed before a noun:

  • bello "schön (beautiful, nice, handsome)" is inflected like the definite article (i.e. bello specchio / bell'amico / bel ragazzo, bella ragazza / bell'amica, begli specchi / begli amici / by ragazzi, belle ragazze / belleamiche )
  • buono "good" is inflected in the singular like the indefinite article (i.e. buono zaino / buon amico, buona fortuna / buon'amica, buoni amici, buone amiche "good backpack / close friend, good luck / close friend, good friends, good girlfriends ")
  • grande "large; significant ..." (the male and female forms are identical) optionally becomes grand before the vowel, optional gran before the consonant , but remains unchanged before a special initial sound (i.e. una grande / grand'amica "a great friend" , una gran casa "an important house", un grande zaino "a great backpack"); the plural is always grandi .
  • With many counterexamples, the masculine form of the adjective santo "holy" can become san , unless in front of a special initial (i.e. il san Pietro ed il san Antonio = santi Pietro ed Antonio "St. Peter and St. Anthony", but: il santo padre "the holy father"); the feminine form santa becomes sant before the vowel (i.e. la sant'Antonia "the holy Antonia")

Pronouns and articles

The pronouns 'lo' and 'esso'

Some forms of the Latin demonstrative pronoun illeg "those" have developed into the personal pronouns of the 3rd person and the definite article in Italian , which is why they are listed together in the following table. In the nominative of the personal pronoun, the regular forms have been replaced or supplemented by those from the Latin ipse .

Singular Plural
Personal pronouns Definite article Personal pronouns Definite article
subject object Dative
clitical
Accusative
clitical
subject object Accusative
clitical
Masculine (egli)
† (ei, elli)
lui gli (e-) lo † (eglino) loro left gli
† (left)
(esso) (essi)
Feminine (ella) lei le / glie- la † (elleno) loro le
(essa) (eat)

Alternations

In Italian, the article is adapted to the following word:

  • lo and la both become l ' before the vowel : l'ho visto "I've seen him", l'ha vista "I've seen her"; l'amico "the friend", l'amica "the friend"
    • The articles in the plural, gli and le , are not shortened according to today's grammars. In older ones, exceptions are gl ' before i- or l' before e- : (gl'interessi) "the interests", (l'erbe) "the herbs".
    • The abbreviation of the plural pronouns is seldom encountered: l'ho visti and l'ho viste "I saw them (them)".
  • As a rule, the masculine definite article also changes before all consonants , apart from special groups of sounds :
    • instead of lo there is il : lo specchio "the mirror", l'amico "the friend", il figlio "the son".
    • instead of gli there is i : gli specchi "the mirror", gli amici "the friends", i figli "the children".
  • But one also finds sentences, especially from earlier centuries, in which the articles lo, la, gli, le appear in any environment without the above changes:
    After vowel: (e gli miei figli) = e (d) i miei figli "and my children ", (che gli miei figli) = che i miei figli = (ch'i miei figli) " that my children ", after 'r': (per lo re) = per il re " for the king "; (lo mio figlio) = il mio figlio "my son" ...

Use of language

  • Originally from were ille forms derived (Egli, ella) for busy, that of ipse derived (esso, essa) for inanimate entities.
  • The forms egli / ella, essi / esse are being replaced more and more frequently, especially in spoken language, by the respective object forms: lui "he", lei "she (she)", loro "they (they)".
    (eglino, elleno) were at least still valid in the 19th century.
  • The clitic dative singular gli is also used in modern Italian in the plural: gli "him, them".
    In classical Italian, loro was used for "them", but it cannot be used
    clitically , but must follow the verb: gli diedi una mela "I gave him / (them) an apple" <> diedi loro una mela "I gave them an Apple".

use

  • The subject forms of the personal pronoun are usually left out if the verb ending sufficiently identifies the person: vengo "I come" <> io vengo "I am [really, and not someone else]". Also note: son (o) io "it's me!".
  • The object forms are after prepositions : di lui "from him", con loro "with them".
  • The clitic dative and accusative forms come before the inflected verb or are attached to imperative / infinite forms.
    Dative: gli diedi una mela I gave him / (them) an apple ", le diedi una mela " I gave her an apple "
    Accusative: lo vedo " I see him / it ", la vedo " I see her (her) " , li / le vedo "I see (them)"; è meglio you lo "it is better to say," damme lo ! "give it / him to me!"; Vedendo lo "as ... him / it saw".
    • In the case of apostrophized imperatives , the apostrophe is removed or replaced by a 'l': di '+ lo > dillo , di' + gli > digli etc .:
      digli ciò che hai fatto! "tell him what you did!", dille ciò che hai fatto! "tell her what you've done!", dillo o sta 'zitto "say it or be quiet!"
      but: di 'loro ciò che hai fatto "tell them what you've done!"
    • If gli or le are combined with a clitic accusative pronoun , both are replaced by glie- :
      glielo dico "I tell him / her / (them)", diglielo! "tell him / her / (them)!".

etymology

  • From the Latin pronoun illeg "those" developed:
    • from the accusative illu (m), illa (m) : lo, ella / la "he / him, she / the"
    • from the vulgar Latin dative illui, illaei : lui, lei (today also used as a prepositive and nominative)
    • From the nominative plural illi, illae : li, le
      The Italian gli, (egli) should also be based on a form illi (e.g. the classic dative)
    • From the genitive plural illorum : loro "ihr (their)"
  • The Latin pronoun ipse "self" developed (the original meaning has been lost):
    • from the accusative ipsu (m), ipsa (m) : (esso, essa) "he, she"
    • from the nominative plural ipsi, ipsae : (essi, esse) "she"

Formal expression

Forms of courtesy ("you") apply in the subject and object case:

  • Lei (mostly capitalized) for a single person regardless of gender. The verb is in the third person singular.
  • Loro is used - rarely today - to address several people. The verb is accordingly in the 3rd person plural (as in German).
  • voi for addressing several people is common today.
    In ancient Italian texts, tu and voi are equivalent to addressing a single person.

The indefinite article

The indefinite (indefinite) appears only in the singular:

  • Full form uno, una
  • Before vowel: un, un '

Simple pronouns and adverbs

The following pronouns are derived from each Latin word:

Personal pronouns

The 3rd person (he / she) personal pronouns are discussed above.

  • ego, me > ìo, me "I, me / me"
  • do, do > do, te "you, you / you"
  • se > " sich ; man" (the accent is sometimes used to distinguish this word from the identically pronounced conjunction se "if")
    • "man + sich" is translated as ci si , which also expresses "sich + LOCATION": ci si sedette al tavolo " you sat down at the table" <> prese la bici e ci si sedette "he took his bike and sat down on it "
  • nos > noi "we / us"
    • In a clitic position one uses ce "there (towards), on it ..." for "us": ci capiamo "we understand each other"
  • vos > voi "you / you"
    • In a clitic position one uses ve "there (towards)" for "you": vi lavate "you wash yourselves"
In klitischer Position werden me, te, se/sé, ce, ve zu mi, ti, si, ci, vi:
a me (zu) mir", con te "mit dir", se ne va "er/sie geht weg"
mi vide "er/sie hat mich gesehen", dimmi! "sag mir!",
alzatosi se ne andò "als er aufgestanden war, ging er weg";
außerdem: ci si lava "man wäscht sich"
  • mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, vobiscum > † (meco, teco, seco, nosco, vosco) "with me, with you, with yourself, with us, with you";
    for this today: con me, con te, con sé, con noi, con voi

possessive pronouns

  • meum, mea, mei, meae > mio, mia, m ièi , mie "my".
  • tuum, tua, tui, tuae > tuo, tua, t uòi , do "your".
  • suum, sua, sui, suae > suo, sua, s uòi , do "his, her (his, her, their)"; this possessive pronoun is both reflexive and non-reflexive, so it also stands in for Latin eius, eorum, earum .
  • nostrum, nostra, nostri, nostrae > nostro, nostra, nostri, nostre "our"
  • vostrum, vostra, nostri, vostrae (alternative spelling to vestrum etc.)> vostro, vostra, vostri, vostre "your"

The Italian possessive pronouns are mostly used together with the definite article or another determiner; In the latter case, German usually requires a paraphrase in the genitive:

  • il mio amico "my friend", mi piace la mia màcchina "I like my car", questi sono i tuoi figli? "are these your children?", le sue braccia sono muscolose "his / her arms are muscular"
  • questi vostri sonni , quei nostri eroi so coraggiosi , codesta tua seconda patria
  • un mio amico "one of my friends, a friend of mine", ho visto una sua foto "I saw a photo of him / her", questa è una nostra proposta "this is a suggestion from us", alcuni miei amici "some of my friends "~ qualche mio amico " some friends of mine, some of my friends "
  • gli altri miei amici (?) "my other friends"
  • nessuno mio amici (?) "none of my friends"
  • ogni mio amico "those of my friends, every friend of mine" ~ tutti miei amici "all my friends"
  • pochi miei amici "few of my friends", molti miei amici "many of my friends, many friends of mine" etc.

No determiner is used in the following cases:

  • In emphasis, for example
    • when addressing; the possessive pronoun is added: oh dio mio! "oh my god!", arrivederci, figlia mia! "Goodbye, my daughter!". Also note: mamma mia! "Mannomann !, oh my goodness !; man, it takes a long time !; what's going on now? That can't be true!"
    • often with merito "merit", colpa "debt", piacere "joy, pleasure, pleasure", casa "house":
      è sua colpa "it is his / her fault", a casa tua "at your home"
  • For family members - mostly with the exception of mamà, papà (or dialectal) babbo - in the singular:
    lei è mia sorella "she is my sister" <> le mie sorelle "my sisters", do il babbo mio "you know my papa "

Demonstratives

  • tantum > tanto "so much, so much"; Plural: tanti, aunt "(so) many"
  • ibi > vi "there; you",
    and (ivi) "there / there" [referring to a place already known; used less than (quivi) ]
  • inde > ne "from it, therefore ..." [one uses instead of di + ciò ],
    and (indi, † ende / enne) "from da" (next to it: di là )
  • illîc / illâc > lì / là "there / there"

Interrogatives

  • quantum > quanto "how much"; also: quanto a ... "what ... concerns"
  • unde > (onde) "where from" - for indications of origin one should di dove? use
  • ubi "wo"> (ove) "wo (hin)" - for location information you should dove? use
  • qui "which"> chi "who"; also: qui (s) sapit > chissà? "who knows?, maybe, possibly"
  • quod "which; that"> che "what that"
    • che as a question is often supplemented or replaced by cosa :
      ch'è questo qui = (che) cosa è questo qui = (che) cos'è questo qui? "What is this?"
    • It also occurs as a relative pronoun: il cane che ... "the dog who / the ..."
    • Collocations: che diavolo "what the hell", cosa vuòi? "what's up?"
  • quando > quando "when, when"

Compound pronouns and adverbs

Many Italian pronouns are the result of a string of (vulgar) Latin pronouns:

Demonstratives and Asservatives

  • (i) llum (i) stum ipsum > lo stesso "the same"; other forms la stessa, gli stessi, le stesse
  • aequum sic > così "(al) as such"
  • (?) ad + ipsum > adesso "now"
  • Compositions with ecce "that is; see!" and eccum :
    • eccum istum > questo "this (he) (here)"; Other forms: questa, questi, queste
      This pronoun is often found with apostrophized forms: quest ',' sto, 'sta,' sti, 'ste .
      • eccum istui > noun (costui) "this (da)" (also derogatory); other forms: (costei, costoro)
      • eccum te / tibi istum > (bsd. Tuscan) (codesto) "this one there (with you)"; other forms: (codesta, codesti, codeste)
      • ? eccum istîc > (bsd. Tuscan) costì "there (to)"
    • ecc (e) hic > ci "here; us"
      • ecce hoc > ciò "dies" [instead of questa / quella / ... cosa ]
      • eccum hâc / hâc > qui / qua "here (there)"
      • eccum + hîncce > (quinci) "from here / there"
    • ecc (e) + ibi > (quivi) "there / da" [referring to a place already known; more often than (ivi) ]
    • eccum illum > quello "that (there)"; other forms: quell ', quella; quegli / quei, quelle, quelli ( noun )
      • eccum (i) llui > noun (colui) "those (da)" (also derogatory); Other forms: (colei, coloro)
        Often used in relative terms: (colui / colei che) "the one who" next to quello / quella che .

The original three-part system
questo near the speaker, codesto with the listener, quello away from both,
is now part of the upscale written language.

  • A noun pronoun in the nominative singular quegli (? < Eccum + Zonen ) for masculine persons means "that one; the first named"; the counterpart is (questi) (? < eccum + iste ) "this; the last named": 'Marco e Andrea sono amici: questi (Marco) è grasso, quegli (Andrea) è magro. Sono i miei figli: questi è Piedro e quegli è Antonio. '

literature

  • Gustav Körting: Latin-Romance Dictionary , Paderborn 1907.

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