Media economics

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The media economics explains how competition and markets by, for and by media created and functioning.

function

Media economics serves to deal with the question of the best possible supply of economic subjects with scarce media sector goods (scarcity as the initiator of economic activity) according to their individual preferences (methodological approach) with given resources. The goods of the media sector are information , entertainment and advertising messages . Media companies are usually responsible for supplying economic subjects with media goods . Such companies are professionally and permanently employed - in the majority of cases also commercially, i. i.e., with the intention of making a profit - with the collection, production and distribution of media goods.

The challenges

Insufficient financing of the goods

Journalistic content has a level of rivalry of zero; In other words, they can be used by many consumers (simultaneously) without reducing the usefulness of the content. There is no rivalry in consumption. The degree of exclusion of journalistic content is also zero, at least after the content was first published. Inquirers can no longer be excluded from using the content. Therefore, in the majority of cases, media goods are considered public goods or club goods . For example, a broadcast on free-to-air broadcasting is a public good and the programming of a pay-TV station is a club good .

Public goods in particular have the disadvantage that they initiate free rider behavior. This means that users do not reveal their preferences, how important it is to them to consume the medium or how much it is worth to them. They will not reveal their willingness to pay because they can also consume the content for free. Even if the consumption, as in the case of a club good , has to be purchased by someone, because of the lack of consumer rivalry, any number of others can use the good (see pay TV program or a newspaper). This means that the goods of the mass media in particular have financial problems. Because no private company will use its own capital to produce goods that consumers can consume free of charge. or for which they are not sufficiently rewarded by the users.

The problem solution offers the placement of advertising within the editorial content. Advertising messages represent so-called private goods . There is the possibility of excluding benefits and there is a rivalry of benefits: If a company wants to place advertising, it has to pay for it and the space taken up by the advertising is no longer available to other advertisers. That is why many media products are marketed as composite products (editorial content plus advertising messages). The funding gap is filled by advertising revenues. However, this form of financing quickly leads to social problems, at the latest when the interests of consumers conflict with those of advertisers and the media company has to decide whose interests should be given priority.

Media as a service provider

“Media are bivalent (two-valued) goods, i. H. always and without exception both a cultural asset and an economic asset. As a cultural asset, they are an expression of human creativity. As an economic asset, they are an expression of human consumption needs. ”Their journalistic dimension lies in the fact that they convey editorial content and advertising messages. Their economic dimension lies in the fact that they bear the costs and can bear the potential for revenue. Dreiskämper speaks of the bivalence of media goods. Altmeppen and Karmasin call this the "Janus face of the media".

Media as functionaries

“On the one hand, media should satisfy needs for information, entertainment, etc. effectively and efficiently and, on the other hand, exercise socially relevant functions.” Identity or task definition disorders can arise from these two facets. What should be rated higher in the event of a conflict: the function of satisfying individual needs or the system-relevant functions that media fulfill with regard to society? This property of conflict is discussed under the term “dissociativity of media goods”.

Since both the bivalence and the dissociativity of the media can also be transferred to the services and functions of media companies and the media branches, it is difficult to clearly locate media economics as a science. In the dominant literature it is assigned either to economics or journalism or communication studies.

Scientific disciplinary delimitation

The scientific-disciplinary positioning of the media economy is about the question of its self-image.

The business view of the media economy

Business IT specialists like Matthias Schumann and Thomas Hess understand the media industry as an industrial and service sector in which the economic principle can be pursued without value. They deal with the "economy of the media" from a business point of view (more precisely: with the design of media management as a special business administration) and place very practical business analyzes at the center of their interests.

The fact that the media industry of Schumann and Hess in particular is characterized by the business management tradition of the economic principle is clearly evident: “In the basic understanding on which this is based, business management has two tasks: explaining and creating. Explaining means finding explanatory patterns for phenomena that can actually be determined, e.g. B. attributed the sales success of books to characteristics such as genre, subject, author, etc. Designing means developing proposals for operational reality, e.g. B. to design an online offer for a specific target group. Both when explaining and designing, findings from neighboring disciplines may have to be taken into account, e.g. B. Behavior of consumers when buying books or the technical possibilities for using the Internet. Economic goals must always be the point of reference. In the context of the media industry, this was not always the case. ”In their assessment, the authors aim at the past, in which the necessity of a special economy of the media was placed in the field of journalism or communication studies due to a lack of particular interest on the part of economics .

Breyer-Mayländer and Werner approach the challenges of the business-oriented media industry a little more openly and thus provide a more specific approach. You see the media economy "as a special business administration with special social responsibility."

The microeconomic view of the media economy

Heinrich also sees the social responsibility of the media. However, he takes the business approach significantly further qualitatively and speaks of a discipline characterized by microeconomic research interests: "Media economics examines how the goods information, entertainment and the dissemination of advertising messages are produced, distributed and consumed in current reporting mass media." Following this definition is the media economics a special microeconomic theory of the mass media . Mass media are “media organizations embedded in society and the mass media public communication distributed by them.” In the broadest sense, Heinrich's media economy is about the economy of journalism.

Beyer and Carl see a broader perspective that goes beyond journalism. Above all, they consider the fundamental economic relationships that connect media markets and media companies and make them predictable: “It is therefore a question of the economic and business analysis of the media sector [...]. Economic theories and findings are applied to the media sector, made usable for it and modified if necessary. "

A media economy as a separate academic discipline thus includes more than a perspective directed at mass media, because the object of investigation is no longer limited to journalism, but also relates to the other media-oriented industries (e.g. the online, music and games sectors) with a. Media economics is thus - supplemented by sectoral research interests - into industrial economics. The fundamental difference to general microeconomics is the fact that households produce direct goods from their indirect goods with the help of a household production function. This is done using capital (human capital, physical capital, other physical capital, etc.). Under opportunity cost these goods are sold to the "manufacturing" household. The households temporarily assume the role of entrepreneur and sell the goods produced to themselves for opportunity costs.

The management-oriented view of the media economy

Bernd W. Wirtz (2013), Martin Gläser (2010) as well as Matthias Karmasin and Carsten Winter (2000) approach media economics through the perspective of management. So you deal with the management and control of media companies. In their interest, the media economy has to show the specifics of media, media offers and media companies. "In doing so, however, and in contrast to general management theory (e.g. Staehle 1999), they particularly emphasize the special character of responsibility, which is based on the special character of media goods as cultural goods." However, Karmasin and Winter expressly point out that a straightforward approximation of media economics via traditional business administration is to be regarded as problematic. This conclusion, however, resides in an evaluation that leaves the orthodox soil of the economy. It opens the point of view of media economics as a discipline equipped with the tools of an economic science, but also as one with a clearly political and journalistic interest in knowledge.

The decisive factor for the possible dominance of the “economic or journalistic catalog of norms” (Kiefer speaks of “system rationalities”) is ultimately not a certain sector-economic approach to relevant questions, but the answer to the question of whether or to what extent the company's motivation to perform is public Order arises. "The more urgent concepts of journalistic merit, the stronger a social attention can be assumed. The need for socio-political guidance may appear more desirable in journalistic mass media than z. B. in the digital-based games industry. "

Whether the economy is classified as background noise in the production of journalistic content or whether the media's journalistic responsibility is to function on the basis of the norms of a social market economy ultimately depends on the conviction whether the media economy is seen as a “pure economy” or as “a Economy with social responsibility. ”According to Dreiskämper, this question is“ only relevant in terms of model theory; First, because the economy always represents a social responsibility framework and second, because evidence of the special responsibility of the media industry has long been provided. "

Karmasin and Winter had already stated more than ten years earlier that it was necessary to no longer discuss the production of media than either being committed to commerce or the common good, but rather about an as well as. "Media management should therefore not limit itself to the function of explaining the context of profit maximization, but should also focus on the communicative dimension."

The communication science view of the media economy

Media and communication scholars such as Altmeppen and Karmasin (2003), Schenk and Hensel (1987) approach media economics by questioning and showing the extent to which societal normative factors must be taken into account in an economy via media and which economic aspects affect the media system Market structures and society as a whole act. "The media economy is therefore not limited to the consideration of economic aspects of the media system, but also considers the consequences of the economization for the entire communication and information system of a society."

Marie-Luise Kiefer also sees this problem and takes a clear position in favor of the social importance of journalism and communication studies (cars): In media economics, according to Kiefer, “it is a sub-discipline of cars, the economic and journalistic phenomena of the media system of capitalist market economies investigated using economic theories. When describing the task, a distinction must be [...] made between a positive and a normative version of media economics. Positive media economics analyzes and explains the economic and journalistic phenomena of the media system, normative media economics develops design options with a view to socially agreed goals of the media system. ”Kiefer sees the boundary between economic and journalistic interest in the fact that the economy does not deal with the effects of media use on the recipient side deal, but the cars do.

The capital-critical (political-ideological) view of the media economy

Find a different approach than that via the neoclassical or journalistic approaches. a. Manfred Knoche and Gerd Kopper, by pointing out that the media economy is well-founded in terms of communication studies, but in the course of privatization and commercialization it would be of the greatest importance that critical theories of capitalism flow into the media economic analyzes. Kiefer also applies part of her interest in knowledge here. In a social system dominated by capital, according to Knoche, "media production and consumption [...] have elementary, indispensable macroeconomic and societal political-ideological functions for securing rule and safeguarding the capitalist economic and social system [...]."

Christian Steininger openly meets this Marxist objection in his understanding of a political media economy. "It can be stated here that power, access and distribution conflicts as well as the relationship between state / politics, economy, society and mass communication are at the center of analysis and theory formation of political economies based on communication science." Thus, according to Steininger and also Knoche and Kopper, the analysis of the relationship between the media industry and a market economy / capitalist society is of fundamental importance.

The starting point of political theories about the media economy are property and power relations, and this is where the interests of communication scientists seem to dock. By constructing the economic system and the political system - at least with regard to the balance of power - congruent, there is fear of the colonization of the journalistic system by the economy. Kiefer speaks of the “colonization of journalism through the economic systematic rationality.” It cannot be clarified whether this “colonialism” is the result of active political-economic steering or an automatism of advancing globalization and digitization as well as the further development of information and communication technologies. In any case, however, the media industry is given a new position in the overall system.

The review of the current literature clearly shows that the target interests of economists differ considerably from those of communication and journalism scholars. Political approaches that are critical of capital are also unsuitable for establishing a convergence between the neoclassical and communication-scientific view of the media industry, because the critique of capital does not find an anchor point, at least in the neoclassical model world. It is more likely to be dismissed as a "doctrine of faith".

The epistemological view of the media economy

The epistemological localization of media economics deals with the narrower questions about the prerequisites, methods and goals of the discipline (see philosophy of science ).

A science can be defined by its subject area or its objects of knowledge. Since a great many sciences deal with media goods, media companies and media markets, it makes more sense in relation to the definition of a media economy to start with the interest in knowledge or the problem. The two most important problems are:

  • The problem of the scarcity of resources and the economic concern of wanting to efficiently overcome the scarcity situation in the interests of the actors.
  • The problem of social coexistence and the associated socio-political concern of being able to exploit and preserve the possibilities of the media for mutual benefit.

While the first problem reflects the traditional view of economics, the second shows clear political-journalistic features.

The concern of the economy is to manage shortages of goods and services according to the principle of consumer sovereignty . The aim of journalism is to support the media's public mandate to form opinions in order to promote pluralism and democracy in society. Both concerns are linked by the fact that the media industry cannot escape the influences of other social functional variables: neither those of politics nor those of capital. While the economic system tries to produce and distribute media as efficiently as possible and thereby avoid wasting resources, journalistic studies aim to determine whether or to what extent the social performance of the media is being instrumentalized by commercialization or for the purpose of purely economic prospects of success. An explosive tension arises here. In order to be able to understand and constructively criticize the economic importance of the media and the functioning of the media markets as well as the political and journalistic positions, a science is required that generates insights into the risks and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses of differently organized media systems and recommendations for action for the specific Everyday coping at hand.

The entire social value creation contribution of the media industry in all its facets cannot be represented by economic models. The journalistic and political effects would stubbornly elude the measurement. However, since these different demands inevitably lead to double conflicting goals (e.g. if the allocation and production efficiency comes into conflict with the claim to preserve diversity of opinion and democracy), attention must be paid to a strict separation of the cognitive goals and analysis methods . This separation means that not a single media economy needs to be established, but at least two: a descriptive variant that uses the methods of economics to gain knowledge and a normative discipline that evaluates and relates the effects of given conditions with critical-rational thinking shows alternative courses of action based on different conceptions of norms that help achieve the desired states. This is the only way to pursue the very different demands - methodologically neatly separated.

Definitions

The descriptive media economy

"Descriptive media economics is a science that is oriented towards business and branch economics and performs the value-free analysis of procurement, transformation (production or prosumption) and distribution of media-borne goods in the context of given framework conditions in order to make functional media markets usable, and uses neoclassical methods and institutional economic models "

The descriptive media economy thus excludes the political or capital-critical (normative) perspective on the media economy. In this sense, media economics is classified as a sub-discipline of economics.

The normative media economy

In contrast to the descriptive one, a normative media economy can be defined as follows:

"Normative media economics is a science oriented towards constitutional and regulatory knowledge and analyzes the social functional relationships supported by media services with the task of describing the conditions of economically influenced mass communication or the creation of a public that are obstacles to freedom, equality and equal opportunities (as pre-defined target norms). The framework conditions of communication are included in the analysis as variable parameters. "

In this respect, however, the normative media economy is methodologically descriptive: Both the “is” and the “should be” already exist; on the one hand given by everyday life, on the other hand by expressions of wishes from different entities (people, groups, institutions etc.). Accordingly, it is not the task of normative media economics to set up teleological theories or to justify the validity of a given norm. However, it can question them, analyze and evaluate the degree of implementation and demand action. The approach of the capital-critical variant is only an exaggerated special form of the communication science approach.

The importance of a normative variant for society grows with the "importance of the economic in the media", because with the increasing dominance of economic activity, the function of the media as an institution of the construction of social reality gets out of focus and because media in its long-term function as a society's memory are increasingly determined by the economization. This approach makes it clear that all relevant influencing variables are not included in the investigation as constants or unchangeable elements, but are active components of the analysis.

The integrative media economy

With the new networking of the media industry in all other areas of social life, a media economics science can ultimately only keep pace if it becomes a metatheory itself, i. In other words, it becomes interdisciplinary and does without disciplinary claims to dominance. That would be the third, the interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary point of view alongside the orthodox economic and the political communication-science motivated. Such an integratively based, interdisciplinary or undisciplined research concept can be defined as follows:

"Integrative media economics is a critical and at the same time affirmatively motivated research program that examines the fundamentals, forms and consequences of public communication in the context of its economic constitution, in order to examine the influence of economic structures, services and functions on the creation of the public by private and institutional individual and to uncover mass communication and to examine the results in terms of their economic efficiency and social responsibility. "

This concept is shaped by social and cultural studies and, against the background of the background noise of economic framework conditions, relates to central communication science object areas such as the public and the communication processes that produce them, in order to be able to lead political follow-up discussions. However, there is also a clear risk that such a research project will fail because it is probably only able to deliver abstract results.

The practical concern of the media economy

The central concern of every media economy is the imparting of media economic specialist and methodological skills. The generation of these competencies requires an empirically sound analysis of processes and effects of an international economization of the information, communication, media and culture sectors. These processes are closely related to the development of structures, working practices and content of international cultural production.

Since media companies are predominantly organized commercially, and media products are consequently provided according to market and competitive principles and serve to generate private profit, the descriptive as well as the normative media-economic analysis for the understanding of communication and media is fundamental for all courses of study in media-oriented professions.

literature

  • Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen, Matthias Karmasin: Media and Economy. Intention and overview. In: Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen, Matthias Karmasin (Hrsg.): Media and Economy. Volume 1/1: Fundamentals of media economics: communication and media studies, economics. Wiesbaden 2003, pp. 7-17.
  • Hanno Beck : Media Economics. Print, television and multimedia. 3rd, revised edition, Springer , Berlin / Heidelberg 2011, ISBN 978-3-642-18131-3 .
  • Andrea Beyer , Petra Carl: Introduction to Media Economics . 3rd edition, UVK Verlagsgesellschaft , Konstanz / Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-8252-3846-9 .
  • Thomas Breyer-Mayländer, Andreas Werner: Handbook of media management. Oldenbourg 2003.
  • Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for courses in media-oriented professions. Conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. LiT Verlag, Münster 2013, ISBN 978-3-643-10167-9 .
  • Susanne Fengler, Stephan Ruß-Mohl: The journalist as 'Homo oeconomicus'. Konstanz 2005, ISBN 3-8966-9466-9 .
  • Martin glasses: media management. 2nd edition, Munich 2010.
  • Jürgen Heinrich: Media Economics. Volume 1: Media system, newspaper, magazine, advertising paper. 2nd edition, Wiesbaden 2001.
  • Karl Homann, Andreas Suchanek: Economics. An introduction. 2nd edition, Tübingen 2005.
  • Ottfried Jarren: On the way to the "media society"? Media as actors and institutionalized action context. Theoretical remarks on the change of the intermediate system. In: Kurt Imhoff, Peter Schulz (ed.): Political reasoning in the information society. Seismo, Zurich 1996, pp. 79-96.
  • M. Karmasin, C. Winter: Contexts and fields of activity of media management. In this. (Ed.): Fundamentals of media management. Munich 2000, pp. 15-39.
  • Marie-Luise Kiefer: Media Economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005.
  • Manfred Knoche: Media Economics in Communication Studies as a Critique of the Political Economy of the Media. In: Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Manfred Knoche on his 60th birthday. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002, ISBN 3-8258-5853-7 , pp. 101-109.
  • Gerd G. Kopper: Media Economy in the Sign of the Fifth Power. Comments on objectives, structures and paradoxes of finding knowledge in a subject with a misleading name. In: Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002.
  • Manuel Puppis: Introduction to Media Policy. Constance 2007.
  • Manfred Rühl: Political Communication - Economic Perspectives. In: O. Jarren, U. Sarcinelli, U. Sachser (eds.): Political communication in the democratic society. Manual with lexicon part. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen / Wiesbaden 1998, pp. 173-185.
  • Michael Schenk, Matthias Hensel: Media Economics. Research status and research tasks. In: Rundfunk und Fernsehen , 35 (4), 1987, pp. 535-547.
  • Matthias Schumann, Thomas Hess: Basic questions of the media industry. 3rd edition, Berlin 2006.
  • Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002.
  • Christian Steininger (Ed.): Political Economy of the Media. Theory and application. Vienna / Berlin 2007.
  • Dirk Wentzel (Ed.): Media Economics. Theoretical foundations and regulatory design alternatives. Lucius & Lucius , Stuttgart 2009.
  • Bernd W. Wirtz: Media and Internet Management. 8th edition, Wiesbaden 2013.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jürgen Heinrich: Media Economics. Volume 1: Media system, newspaper, magazine, advertising paper. 2nd edition, Wiesbaden 2001, p. 20.
  2. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, pp. 63, 133, 212.
  3. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 295.
  4. ^ Marie-Luise Kiefer: media economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005, p. 136.
  5. ↑ Jürgen Heinrich: Media Economics. Volume 1: Media system, newspaper, magazine, advertising paper. 2nd edition, Wiesbaden 2001, p. 129.
  6. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 17.
  7. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 17.
  8. ^ Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen, Matthias Karmasin (Ed.): Media and Economy. Volume 1/1: Fundamentals of media economics: communication and media studies, economics. Wiesbaden, p. 22.
  9. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 21.
  10. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 21 f.
  11. ^ Matthias Schumann, Thomas Hess: Basic questions of the media industry. 3rd edition, Berlin 2006.
  12. ^ Matthias Schumann, Thomas Hess: Basic questions of the media industry. 3rd edition, Berlin 2006, p. 12 f.
  13. ^ Thomas Breyer-Mayländer, Andreas Werner: Handbuch der Medienbetriebslehre. Oldenbourg 2003, p. 19.
  14. ↑ Jürgen Heinrich: Media Economics. Volume 1: Media system, newspaper, magazine, advertising paper. 2nd edition, Wiesbaden 2001, p. 20.
  15. ↑ Manuel Puppis: Introduction to media politics. Constance 2007, p. 33.
  16. ↑ Andrea Beyer, Petra Carl: Introduction to Media Economics. 3rd edition, Konstanz / Munich 2012, p. 9.
  17. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 361.
  18. ^ Thomas Breyer-Mayländer, Andreas Werner: Handbuch der Medienbetriebslehre. Oldenbourg 2003, p. 18.
  19. ↑ M. Karmasin, C. Winter: Contexts and fields of activity of media management. In this. (Ed.): Fundamentals of media management. Munich 2000, p. 30.
  20. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 361.
  21. ^ Marie-Luise Kiefer: media economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005, p. 21 f.
  22. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 361.
  23. ^ Thomas Breyer-Mayländer, Andreas Werner: Handbuch der Medienbetriebslehre. Oldenbourg 2003, p. 18.
  24. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, p. 362.
  25. ↑ M. Karmasin, C. Winter: Contexts and fields of activity of media management. In this. (Ed.): Fundamentals of media management. Munich 2000, p. 36 f.
  26. ^ Michael Schenk, Matthias Hensel: Media Economics - Research Status and Research Tasks. In: Rundfunk und Fernsehen 35 (4), 1987, p. 536.
  27. ^ Marie-Luise Kiefer: media economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005, p. 41.
  28. ^ Marie-Luise Kiefer: media economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005, p. 144.
  29. ↑ Manfred Knoche: Media Economics in Communication Studies as a Critique of the Political Economy of the Media. In: Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Manfred Knoche on his 60th birthday. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002, pp. 101–109.
  30. ↑ Gerd G. Kopper: Media Economy in the Sign of the Fifth Power. Comments on objectives, structures and paradoxes of finding knowledge in a subject with a misleading name. In: Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Manfred Knoche on his 60th birthday. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002.
  31. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. Münster 2013, pp. 316–353.
  32. ↑ Manfred Knoche: Media Economics in Communication Studies as a Critique of the Political Economy of the Media. In: Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Manfred Knoche on his 60th birthday. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002, p. 103.
  33. ↑ Christian Steininger (Ed.): Political Economy of the Media. Theory and application. Vienna / Berlin 2007, p. 13.
  34. ^ Marie-Luise Kiefer: media economics. Introduction to an economic theory of the media. 2nd edition, Munich / Vienna 2005, p. 22.
  35. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. LiT Verlag, Münster, p. 363.
  36. ↑ Gabriele Siegert (Ed.): Media Economics in Communication Studies. Significance, basic questions and development prospects. Münster / Hamburg / London 2002, p. 9.
  37. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics . LiT Verlag, Münster, pp. 359-364.
  38. ↑ Christian Steininger (Ed.): Political Economy of the Media. Theory and application. Vienna / Berlin 2007, p. 86.
  39. ^ Karl Homann, Andreas Suchanek: Economics. An introduction. 2nd edition, Tübingen 2005, p. 2 ff.
  40. ↑ Manfred Rühl: Political Communication - Economic Perspectives. In: O. Jarren, U. Sarcinelli, U. Sachser (eds.): Political communication in the democratic society. Manual with lexicon part. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen / Wiesbaden 1998, p. 136 f.
  41. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. LiT Verlag, Münster 2013, p. 365.
  42. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. LiT Verlag, Münster 2013, p. 366.
  43. ^ Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen, Matthias Karmasin: Media and Economy - Intention and Overview. In this. (Ed.): Media and Economy. Volume 1/1: Fundamentals of media economics: communication and media studies, economics. Wiesbaden 2003, p. 28.
  44. ↑ Ottfried Jarren: On the way to the "media society"? Media as actors and institutionalized action context. Theoretical remarks on the change of the intermediate system. In: Kurt Imhoff, Peter Schulz (ed.): Political reasoning in the information society. Seismo, Zurich 1996, pp. 79-99.
  45. ↑ Thomas Dreiskämper: Medienökonomie I: Textbook for degree courses in media-oriented professions: conceptual approaches and theoretical foundations of media economics. LiT Verlag, Münster 2013, p. 369.