Mozi
| Mozi | |
|---|---|
| Traditional names | |
| Ancestral name (姓): | Jiang (Chinese:姜; Pinyin : Jiāng) |
| Clan name (氏): | Mo ¹ (Chinese:墨; Pinyin: Mò) |
| Call name (名): | Di (Chinese:翟; Pinyin: Dí) |
| Names according to modern knowledge | |
| Ancestral name (姓): | unknown |
| Clan name (氏): | unknown |
| Call name (名): | Di (Chinese:翟; Pinyin: Dí) |
| Official name | |
| Master Mo | (Chinese:墨子; Pinyin: Mòzǐ) |
Mozi , and Mo-tsu, Mo-tse ( Chinese 墨子 , Pinyin Mòzǐ - "Master Mo") or Mo Di, Mo Ti, Mo Te, Me-Ti ( Chinese 墨翟 , Pinyin Mò Dí ), Latinized Micius called , lived in the late 5th century BC BC , worked mainly in northern China and was the founder and namesake of Mohism (墨家, Mòjiā ), a school of Chinese philosophy. Mohism was a utilitarian school of thought geared towards the welfare of the people. The tightly organized Muslim school was already in the 3rd century BC. Divided into three groups and a century later had completely lost its importance. In contrast to Confucius , Mozi is said to have written at least part of his extensively preserved writings himself.
The legal idea at Mozi
introduction
From the sixth to the third century BC, China was the scene of the so-called "wandering philosophers", men who were dissatisfied with the social situation and who traveled through the country to report their ideas to the rulers and to put them into practice. Probably the best-known of these philosophers is Confucius , whose system has strongly influenced China to this day.
They all dealt with fundamental questions, for example what a perfect social order should look like and what holds it together. Questions about the law inevitably arise: Are there laws, if so, who enacts them, what do the laws look like and how are they being observed.
The differences between Confucius and Mozi - and what they have in common - are worked out below. Particular attention is paid to the image of man , which is seen as real, and the image of man in utopian society.
Bulk
Mozi's life
The information about the person Mozi is poor and partly speculative. He probably lived between 490 and 381 BC. (The figures differ, but they all move between the years 490 and 381), i.e. at the time of the change from the Chunqiu period (722-481) to the time of the Warring States (480-222) and between Confucius and Menzius (It is possible that Mozi was born before the death of Confucius, which is given as the year 479 BC.).
His home state was Lu or Song, Mo was his family name and his first name Di. Mozi came from a lower social class, the assumptions of his activity range from the craftsman to the clerk to high officials. However, his employment as a civil servant is unlikely.
The period in which Mozi lived was marked by the collapse of the old patriarchy and the dissolution of feudal structures. Society went through a development in which the lower classes abandoned their passive role and the upper classes increasingly devoted themselves to the arbitrary exploitation of the lower classes. The country was ravaged by wars and the common population sank into chaos and poverty.
Mozi expresses this fact by naming seven grievances:
- Investing in pomp instead of defense
- no help from neighbors in the event of an enemy attack,
- useless exhaustion of the forces of the people,
- Corruption and arbitrariness of officials,
- Ignorance and arrogance of the prince and thus insufficient defensive measures,
- Believe in lies and
- insufficient food, unsuitable officials, and ineffectiveness of rewards and punishments.
Differentiation from Confucius
The weighting of rén (仁) and yì (義) and the idea of heaven
If the perfect society according to Confucius is based on fellow humanity (rén 仁), this place in Mozi's theory is taken by righteousness (yí 義). As already mentioned in the terms, according to Confucius, humanity arises in people themselves and works out of them. Righteousness, however, according to Mozi, is a virtue imposed on man externally by force.
This fundamental difference can also be understood from the image of the sky. While the sky with Confucius represents a withdrawn, intangible and impersonal entity, whose will is anchored in man himself and works in him, Mozi sees him as an independent personality who is very close to the earth. Just as in Confucius virtue arises out of itself, it has itself as an end. However, Mozi himself considers virtue and thus the will of Heaven from a utilitarian perspective. Righteousness serves the stability of the political system.
Class differences: partiality and universality
The idea of humanity (ren 仁) is also firmly anchored in Mozi's ideas, but moves in the hierarchy under righteousness (yi 義), which it serves to preserve. She experiences a change when Mozi frees her from the restrictions of the division of society, as envisaged by Confucius. He calls for a kind of humanity that is not subject to the fixed classification of the individual in society (li 禮), which is particularly expressed in pious docility (xiào 孝). Thus Mozi goes one step further than Confucius and expands the focus from the ruling class to the whole of society. While with Confucius people and rulers do not mix, the dividing line with Mozi is permeable in both directions.
「故 當 是 時 ， 以 德 就 列 ， 以 官 服 事 ， 以 勞 殿 賞 ， 量 功 而 分 祿． 故 故 官 無 常 貴 ， 而 民 無 終 賤 ， 有 能 則 舉 之 ， 下 之 則 則 則」
“That is why at that time it was classified according to virtue, tasks were assigned depending on the office, the rewards determined according to personal commitment and the salary was divided according to the performance. A civil servant was not necessarily permanently in his high position and people were not condemned to live as commoners forever. If someone had skills, he was selected, but if he was unable, he was removed from office. "
The equality of people is therefore not expressed in actual material terms, but rather in equal opportunities and equality of assessment standards. Mozi sees the differentiated humanity (ren 仁) as the cause of the lack of justice.
「分 名 乎 天 下 惡 人 而 賊 人 者 ， 兼 與？ 別 與？ 即 必 曰 別 也．」
“And when we single out and name those in the kingdom who hate and harm others, are their actions caused by universality [jian 兼] or by partiality [bie 別]? The answer is certain: through partiality. "
「兼 即 仁 矣 ， 義 矣．」
"The doctrine of universality [jian 兼] is probably human [ren 仁] and righteous [yi 義]."
Humanity and righteousness are therefore criteria for universality and therefore take precedence over it.
Basics of Mozi's theory
The basis of Mozi's considerations is clearly his image of man. In his opinion, a person who grows up without a fixed social environment is selfish and short-sighted.
When it
「未 有 刑 政」
"Still no case law and no government"
there was that
「天 下 之 亂 也 ， 至 如 禽 獸 然 ， 無 君 臣 上 下 長 幼 之 節 ， 父 子 子 兄 弟 之 禮 ， 是 以 天 下 亂 焉．」
“Disorder in the empire as if it were wild animals. There were no rules for the relations between prince and subject, superior and subordinate, older and younger, no rules of conduct for the behavior of father and son and older and younger brother; hence the empire was in confusion. "
On their own, people are unable to develop a common language and to compare their views.
Mozi's goal
The time in which he lived and the perspective from which he perceived society, namely that of the common people, are decisive for Mozi's goals. He developed a system similar to Confucianism, which was tailored to the needs of the common man (Kung-chuan Hsiao calls him a “common-man Confucius” and his teachings “common-man Confucianism”.). His endeavors were for justice ( Chinese 天 欲 義 而 惡 不 義． ), peace and the prosperity of the people.
Mozi's social ideal - general charity and mutual benefit
When asked how to end the country's misery, Mozi replies:
「以 兼 相 愛 交 相 利 之 法 易 之．」
“With the all-embracing mutual love [jian xiang ai 兼 相 愛] and the mutual support [xiang li 相 利] of everyone, it can be changed. ["Mutual support" could also be represented as "mutual benefit"] "
The general charity required is one of Mozi's great innovations alongside utilitarianism. In Confucius, utility and morals were opposed to one another, but in Mozi they enter into a synthesis. Charity is useful.
「今 吾 本 原 兼 之 所 生 ， 天 下 之 大 利 者 也．」
"Now I have shown that universality [jian 兼] has the greatest benefit [li 利] for the kingdom."
For Mozi, general charity consists in no longer distinguishing between yourself and those around you. This can be extended to all structures; everyone else's family is like one's own and other states are like one's own.
「子 墨 子 言 ：「 視 人 之 國 若 視 其 國 ， 視 人 之 家 若 視 其 家 ， ， 視 人 之 身 若 視 其 身．是 故 諸 侯 相 愛 則 不 野 戰 ， 家 主 相 愛 則 不 相 篡 ， 人 與 與 相 相 愛 則 不 相 賊． […] 天 下 之 人 皆 相 愛 ， 強 不 執 弱 ， 眾 不 劫 寡， 富 不 侮 貧 ， 貴 不 敖 賤 ， 詐 不 欺 愚．凡 天 下 禍 篡 怨 恨 可 使 毋 起 者 ， 以 相 愛 生 也． 」」
“Master Mo Ti said: 'If you look at other states like your own and other families like your own and other people like yourself, then the feudal princes will love one another and not wage war with one another, and the heads of families will be friends with one another and not one another overlap, and people will love one another and not harm one another. [...] and misery, assaults, dissatisfaction and hatred will no longer arise in the whole world. This is due to mutual love [xiang ai 相 愛]. '"
The boundary between the ego and the rest of society is thus abolished. Everyone who acts in his own sense automatically acts in the sense of society and vice versa. This thought of the absolute equality of oneself and all others is reflected in the mohistic meaning of yi (義), which looks like a stepless Confucian yi (義), i.e. frees from class differences (li 禮). Yi (義) is the implementation of mutual benefit and general philanthropy, i.e. “humane behavior”.
Disambiguation
The hierarchical structure of Mozi's thoughts can now be further elaborated. The term yi (義) is subordinate to ren (仁) on the one hand and jian ai (兼愛) and xiang li (相 利) on the other.
Humanity as an expression of righteousness
Ren (仁) describes the vertical manifestation of yi (義), i.e. the behavior of the rulers towards their subjects. Mozi's call to act in accordance with renown applies only to the rulers:
「仁 之 事 者 ， 必 務 求 興 天 下 之 利 ， 除 天 下 之 害 ， 將 以 為 法 乎 天 下．利 人 乎 ， 即 為 ； 不利 人 乎 ， 即 止．且夫 仁 者 之 為 天 下 度 也 ， 非 為 其 目 之 所 美 ， 耳 之 所 樂 ， 口 之 所 所 甘 ， 身 體 之 所 所 安 ， 以 此 虧 奪 民 衣 食 之 財 ， 仁 也 弗 為 為 為 為 為 為． 」
“It is the task of a human [ren 仁] to strive to increase the usefulness of the kingdom, to avert harm from it and to be an example for the world. Therefore he does what is useful to people and refrains from doing what is of no use to them. Furthermore, when planning the use of the kingdom, man thinks not only of what pleases the eye, pleases the ear, tastes the palate, and is pleasing to the body. Because if he had to rob the people of the goods they need for clothing and food, he would fail to do so. "
「故 置 此 以 為 法 ， 立 此 以 為 儀 ， 將 以 量 度 天 下 之 王 公 大 人 人 卿 大 夫 之 仁 與 不 不 仁 ， 譬 之 猶 分 黑 白 也」
“He makes this [the will of heaven] the standard [fa 法] and sets it up as a guideline in order to determine humanity [ren 仁] and inhumanity [bu ren 不 bei] among the kings, princes and greats of the empire as if he were distinguishing between black and white. "
General charity and mutual benefit as an expression of righteousness
General charity (jian ai 兼愛) and mutual benefit (xiang li 相 利) are primarily applied on the horizontal plane, although also applied vertically, but here, in contrast to ren (仁), in both directions.
「臣 子 之 不 孝 君 父 ， 所 謂 亂 也． […] 雖 父 之 不 慈 子 ， 兄 之 不 慈 弟 ， 君 之 不 慈 慈 臣 ， 此亦 天 下 之 所 謂 亂 也． […] 雖至 大 夫 之 相 亂 家 ， 諸 侯 之 相 攻 國 者 亦 然．[...] 天 下 之 亂 物 具 此 而已 矣．察 此 何 自 起？ 皆 起 不 相 愛． 」
“When subjects and sons do not show filial piety [xiao 孝] to their princes and fathers, this is called confusion [luan 亂]. […] If even the father has no loving attitude towards his son, the elder towards his younger brother or the prince towards his subject [ci], this is also a condition that is called disorder in the kingdom. [...] And when the dignitaries bring their families into disarray and the liege princes fight each other, then it is the same. [...] All cases of confusion in the kingdom are included. And if one examines what their reason is, it is always the lack of mutual love [xiang ai 相 愛]. "
Definition of righteousness
However, the concept of yi (義) is not absolute either. It is measured against the standard of utility. What is meant here is the greatest possible benefit for the largest possible part of society.
Instructions are required for implementing the yi (義).
「天 下 從 事 者 不 可 以 無 法 儀．」
"One who does something in the world cannot do so without a yardstick [fa 法]."
「然 則 奚 以 為 治 法 而 可？ 故 曰 莫 若 法 天．」
“Then what can serve as a model for the government [zhi fa 治 法]? The answer is: The best example [fa 法] is heaven [tian 天]. "
“If you take heaven as a model, then you have to orientate yourself to heaven in everything you do and obey what heaven wants, and refrain from doing what it does not want. [...] Heaven certainly desires that people love one another and support one another [...]. "
Heaven dictates which behavior is in accordance with yi (義) and which is not. It defines the ren (仁) contained in yi (義) of the ruling classes and the jian ai (兼 爱) and xiang li (相 利) of the population.
Implementation in society
The measures that Mozi provides for the implementation of his ideas can be divided into two areas. On the one hand the path to peace, humanity and justice and on the other hand the achievement of prosperity. The main fulfillment of these two main goals rests on different social classes.
「上 強 聽 治 ， 則 國 家 治 矣 ， 下 強 從 事 則 財 用 足 矣．」
"If the upper ones are fully committed to the government, then the state is well-ordered, and if the lower ones do their duties with all their might, goods and means will suffice."
Peace, humanity and justice as the tasks of the superiors
Based on Mozi's image of man, he calls for a system that forces people through rewards and punishments to behave according to his ideas. The implementation of this system takes place in parallel on two levels. On the sacred and earthly level at the same time.
Sacral level
The yardstick (fa 法) is the will of heaven. Everyone has to orientate themselves to him. To ensure this, Mozi draws on the spirits and gods who were strongly anchored in popular belief in his time and turns them into agents of heaven. These spirits and gods know the will of heaven and let it guide them. You always see and hear everything and have the power to reward or punish.
「故 鬼 神 之 明 ， 不 可 為 幽 閒 廣 澤 ， 山 林 深 谷 ， 鬼 神 之 明 必 知 之．」
"You cannot escape the waking eye of the spirits even in gloomy valleys or wide swamps, in mountains, forests or deep gorges, because the eyes of the spirits will still see you."
「今 若 使 天 下 之 人 ， 偕 若 信 鬼 神 之 能 賞 賢 而 罰 暴 也 ， 則 夫 夫 下 下 豈 亂 哉！」
“If all people in the kingdom today could be made to believe that the spirits are capable of rewarding the good [shang 賞] and punishing the bad [fa 罰], how could there be disorder [luan] in the kingdom亂] give? "
Although the main aspect here is not the existence of spirits, but rather people's belief in the existence of spirits, it becomes clear that this belief is of elementary importance for the effectiveness of this branch of the implementation of the value system. The standards of value do not act on people from the outside, but from within them through belief in spirits. In this instrumentalization of the spirits, the basic utilitarian idea with the aim of eliminating disorder finds expression.
Worldly level
First phase: system installation
Here too, Heaven's will functions as the supreme authority. In order to lead the empire out of chaos, it must be united by a supreme ruler.
「是 故 選 天下 之 賢 可 者 ， 立 以 為 天 子．」
"Therefore, the most capable sage in the kingdom was chosen and installed as the Son of Heaven."
This cannot be chosen by the people because they are unable to do so due to their limitations and selfishness. Even the idea of having the ruler appointed by a group of wise men is immediately rejected, because the ruler must not have any other authority over him except heaven. So it is inevitably up to Heaven to determine the ruler. This is done by applying the yardstick (fa 法), i.e. the will of heaven.
Once the Son of Heaven has been installed, his job is to issue standards that will lead society out of its original state.
However, since the country is too extensive to be unified by one person alone and as a
「以 其 力 為 未 足 ， 又 選 擇 天 下 之 賢 可 者 ， 置 立 立 以 以 為 三 公．」
"[...] you saw that his strength was not enough, so you chose other capable and wise men of the empire and made them the three ministers."
Then the next step follows, her
「故 畫 分 萬 國 ， 立 諸 侯 國 君 […] 又 選 擇 其 國 之 賢 可 者 ， 置 立 之 之 以 正 長．」
“[…] They divided the whole thing into countless areas and appointed feudal princes and sovereigns. [...] And the wisest and most capable men of every country were selected and appointed as civil servants. "
So the land is divided into smaller and smaller areas, down to the communities. A man is introduced to each part on each level. The criterion is humanity (ren 仁):
「是 故 里 長 者 ， 里 之 仁 人 也．」
"The most human [仁] man in every church became the church leader."
「鄉 長 者 ， 鄉 之 仁 人 也．」
"District chief was the most human [仁] man in the district."
「國 君 者 ， 國 之 仁 人 也．」
"The prince was the most human [仁] man in his country."
Second phase: government policy
After installing this hierarchical system, the Son of Heaven announced his government policy.
「聞 善 而 不 善 ， 皆 以 告 其 上．上 之 所 是 ， 必 皆 是 之 ， 所 非 必 皆 非 之 ， 上 有 過 則 規 諫 之 ， ， 下 有 善 則 傍 薦 之． 」
“If someone experiences good or bad, then he should report it to his superior. And what the supervisor thinks is right, everyone must consider right, and what he thinks is wrong, everyone must consider it wrong. If a supervisor makes a mistake, then one should complain appropriately, and if his subjects do good, the supervisor should recommend them. "
「上 以 此 為 賞 罰．」
"On this basis, [shang 賞] rewarded and punished [fa 罰] the superiors [...]."
These rules of conduct are taught to the people in the communities by the community leader. He aligns the people with the district head, whose job it is
「同 鄉 之 義」
"[...] to standardize the views in the district [...]."
The district chairman, in turn, aligns the people with the sovereign, and he aligns them with the son of heaven. At all levels up to the Son of Heaven, people's opinions are further unified.
「察 天 下 之 所 以 治 者 何 也？ 天 子 唯 能 壹 壹 同 天 下 之 義．」
"For if one examined what the well-being in the kingdom is based on, it is simply because the Son of Heaven understands how to unify the diverse views in his kingdom."
When subjects and rulers have different views, those whom the ruler rewards will be despised by the people and those whom he punishes will be praised by the people.
The people have no right to rise up against the Son of Heaven. However, if he does not rule according to the will of heaven, the whole country will be ravaged by natural disasters and the ruler and the people will be punished.
"But even if everyone identifies with Heavenly Son but is not in tune with Heaven, natural disasters will never end."
Interaction of both levels
The two levels of implementation, the spiritual and the mundane, have considerable parallels. In both cases, Heaven's will is the governing principle (fa 法) and a system of surveillance and rewards and punishments is used. This has its cause in the Mozi image of man. In his opinion, people must be compelled to behave righteously, or rather rightly. Total monitoring is the basis for the effectiveness of the system.
「是 以 舉 天 下 之 人 皆 恐 懼 振 動 惕 慄 ， 不 敢 為 淫 暴 ， 天 子 之 視 聽 也 神」
"As a result, the inhabitants of the kingdom were all very frightened and afraid and dared not do evil, saying, 'The eyes and ears of the Son of Heaven have supernatural powers.' [Chang translates the last part as 'The ruler is like a god in his seeing and hearing!' Here the proximity to the sacred implementation level becomes clearer.] "
The people live in fear and terror and are too paralyzed to break the law, the will of heaven. The methods act on the one hand from the outside on the person, on the other hand from the inside, so that they complement each other and completely enclose the person.
Heaven's will
The will of heaven (tian zhi 天 志) is the foundation of Mohism. It describes the foundations of a functioning society, which everything else serves to achieve and maintain. Heaven does not intervene directly in the world, but rather through its agents or through the Son of Heaven. Communication with them is via the will of heaven.
「天 之 意 不 欲 大 國 之 攻 小 國 也 ， 大 家 之 亂 小 家 也 ， 強 之 暴 暴 寡 ， 詐 之 謀 愚 ， 貴 貴 之 傲 賤 ， […] 欲 人 之 有 力 相 營 ， 有 道相 教 ， 有 財 相 分 也．又 欲 之 強 聽 治 也 ， 下 之 強 從 事 也． 」
“Heaven does not wish that large states attack small ones, that large families cause confusion when small, that the strong play badly to the minorities, that the clever outsmart the stupid and the noble despise the poor. [...] He wants the strong to support their fellow human beings, the educated to instruct their fellow human beings and to share the wealthy with their fellow human beings. He also wants the upper ones to do their utmost for the government and the lower to do their utmost in their tasks. "
"Heaven desires justice and hates injustice."
"Heaven desires life and hates death, it desires prosperity and hates poverty, it desires order and hates disorder."
Heaven's will serves as a yardstick [fa 法] for the behavior of all parts of society. He is what comes closest to the law at Mozi and is therefore the cornerstone of his teaching. Compliance with the law by the population is ensured by the authorities. The Son of Heaven, however, is the highest human authority and is therefore not accountable to any earthly being. Its behavior is only monitored by Heaven itself and punished with natural disasters, should it act contrary to its will.
The way to prosperity
Save up
"Anything that requires additional expenses and is not in the interests of the people, they condemned [the 'holy kings of antiquity']."
Mozi demands that funerals be made easier. He subjects them to his utilitarianism. The coffins, funerary robes, burial mounds and graves should be designed more simply so that they serve their purpose.
For Mozi, music is the epitome of social injustice and is representative of all kinds of privileged luxury. It is reserved for the rich and high-ranking and is financed by the common people.
“[...] if you look at it [music, pageantry, feasts], then this does not serve the benefit of the people. Therefore, Master Mo Ti said: making music is bad. "
Unnecessary wars are unnecessary waste for Mozi (Mozi doesn't damn well generally wars of aggression; he supports punitive expeditions).
Increase in production
There is enough land, according to Mozi, to achieve a higher harvest yield there is only a lack of people. So he demands an early marriage.
"Men of twenty must not dare not start a household, and girls of fifteen must not dare not serve a man."
Wars must be avoided because they cause many deaths and separate soldiers from their wives for a long time. The soldiers are also held back from their productive work.
The music binds workers, since young men or women are used to play the instruments and they have to learn to play. Furthermore, the instruments have to be manufactured. But even listening to the music itself is counterproductive, because the princes hear music in the company of officials and lowly, which prevents them from working.
"Because today kings, princes and high officials have music made, they rob the people of the means for clothing and food [...]"
In the event of the death of relatives or superiors, people had to observe mourning periods of up to three years. During this time they had to be sexually abstinent and were not allowed to work. On the one hand, this reduces population growth and hinders production. In addition, human sacrifices were not uncommon. B. the Son of Heaven killed a few hundred people.
Final consideration
The philosophy of the Mozi strives for the goal of realizing and increasing the prosperity, peace and justice of the people. The most important criterion for judging sacred and worldly things is usefulness. Therefore Mozi rejects unjust wars, opulence, feasts, a bloated bureaucratic apparatus, art and music and demands a simple life for people with hard work, without luxury, without (useless) joys in a strict order in which everyone is assigned their role .
According to Mozi, the ideal order is an outwardly peaceful state with an impeccable ruler (the Son of Heaven, tian zi ) at its head, who promotes the well-being of the people. Rebellion or resistance against the ruler is prohibited, but the people are liable for the failure of the ruler. Man is shaped by state laws and constant surveillance. Rewards (shang) and punishments (fa) as well as total surveillance by the state ensure compliance with the law and a lifestyle of charity and humanity.
The philosophy of Mozi stands in a profound contradiction between the chaotic, egoistic and brutal nature of man on the one hand and the ideal image of the righteous, good and noble man on the other. This contradiction is not lifted by an inner change of the human character or by a refinement of the mind, but “cleaned up” by external force.
reception
An adaptation learned his work by the German poet Bertolt Brecht . Under the title Me-ti. Buch der Wendungen , Brecht summarized a doctrine of behavior in which the doctrine of communism is presented in a corrupted form , as it was received by Brecht. Brecht portrayed his girlfriend Ruth Berlau in the figure of Lai-tu, and himself in the figure of Ki-en-leh or Kin-jeh.
Honor
The first space satellite for experiments in quantum communication , launched in China in August 2016 , was named Micius (Latinized form of the name Mozi ). The project is a cooperation between scientific institutes in Austria and China.
literature
- Wing-tsit Chan: A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy . Princeton University Press, Princeton 1969, ISBN 0-691-01964-9 .
- Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers . Cambridge 1990.
- Philosophical works by the social ethicist Mê Ti and his students . Completely translated for the first time, with execute Inlet, ext. u. textcrit. Explanations vers. by Alfred Forke . Commissioned by the Association of Scientific Publishers, Berlin 1922.
- Kung-chuan Hsiao: A History of Chinese Political Thought . In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century AD Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979.
- Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China . Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-326-00466-4 .
- Peter J. Opitz: The Way of Heaven: To the Spirit and Shape of Political Thought in Classical China . Fink, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-7705-3380-1 .
- Vitalii Aronovich Rubin: Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers . Columbia University Press, New York 1976, ISBN 0-231-04064-4 .
- Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Of the love of heaven for people . Diederichs, Munich 1992, ISBN 3-424-01029-4 .
- Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Solidarity and general love for people . Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975, ISBN 3-424-00509-6 .
- Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war . Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975, ISBN 3-424-00509-6 .
- Bertolt Brecht: Me-ti. Book of Twists . Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 1971.
- Mozi jiangu墨子 闲 诂 (Notes on Mozi). Ed. by Sun Yirang (孙诒让). Zhonghua shuju , Beijing 2001.
- Mo Zi: Of concern and care. Selected and commented by Wolfgang Kubin. (Classics of Chinese Thought 10). Herder, Freiburg a. a. 2020, ISBN 978-3-451-38301-4 .
Web links
- Literature by and about Mozi in the catalog of the German National Library
- Hui-chieh Loy: Mozi (Mo-tzu) (c. 400s-300s BCE). In: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
- Chris Fraser: Mohism. In: Edward N. Zalta (Ed.): Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
- Chris Fraser: Mohist Canons. In: Edward N. Zalta (Ed.): Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
- Chinese Text Project: Mozi
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Kung-chuan Hsiao: A History of Chinese Political Thought. In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century AD Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979, p. 215.
- ↑ a b Vitalii Aronovich Rubin: Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers. Columbia University Press, New York 1976, p. 33.
- ↑ a b Wing-Tsit Chan: A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1969, p. 211.
- ↑ a b c Peter J. Opitz: The way of heaven. Fink, Munich 1999, p. 159.
- ↑ a b Wing-Tsit Chan: A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1969, p. XV.
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 14.
- ↑ Kung-chuan Hsiao: A History of Chinese Political Thought. In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century AD Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979, p. 214. (See also note 1. on other theories)
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 53.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 68.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 70.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 70f.
- ↑ Peter J. Opitz: The way of heaven. Fink, Munich 1999, p. 166f.
- ↑ Peter J. Opitz: The way of heaven. Fink, Munich 1999, p. 168.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 72f.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 73.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 89, one s 29
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 146, one s 74
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 152, one s 78
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 54.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 110, one s 47
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 115, one s 50
- ↑ Kung-chuan Hsiao: A History of Chinese Political Thought. In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century AD Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979, p. 222.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 124, two s 124.
- ↑ a b c Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 59.
- ↑ a b Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 141, one s 67.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 77.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 148, one s 75.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 78.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 79.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 72.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975b, p. 160, two s 160.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975b, p. 83, two s 133.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 136ff, one s 65f.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 80.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 67, one s 12
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 68, one s 13
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 68.
- ↑ a b Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975b, p. 75, two p. 128
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975b, p. 107, two s 156
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975b, p. 95, two s 144
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 111, one s 50
- ↑ a b Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 55.
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, pp. 54f.
- ↑ a b Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 111, one s 47
- ↑ a b c Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 112, one s 48
- ↑ a b c Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 113, one s 48
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 112ff.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 114, one s 49
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 60.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 117.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975a, p. 119.
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence. Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers . Cambridge 1990, p. 61.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Köln 1975a, p. 119, one s 56.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 67.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 68.
- ↑ a b Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 48.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 51.
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, pp. 57f.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 112.
- ↑ Ralf Moritz: The philosophy in ancient China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, p. 82.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 47.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 114f.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 115.
- ↑ Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer (Ed.): Mo Ti: Against the war. Diederichs, Düsseldorf / Cologne 1975b, p. 57.
- ↑ Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990, p. 58.
- ↑ First quantum satellite launched orf.at, August 16, 2016, accessed August 16, 2016.
| personal data | |
|---|---|
| SURNAME | Mozi |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Mon Tue |
| BRIEF DESCRIPTION | chinese thinker |
| DATE OF BIRTH | 5th century BC Chr. |
| DATE OF DEATH | 5th century BC Chr. |