Printed electronics

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Manufacture of electronic structures in gravure printing on paper (Chemnitz University of Technology).

Printed electronics ( English printed electronics ) denotes electronic components , modules and applications that fully or partially by means of printing processes can be produced. Instead of the printing inks, electronic functional materials, which are available in liquid or paste form, are printed. Often these are organic materials, so printed electronics is a sub-area of organic electronics and is seen as a key technology for their production. A significant reduction in production costs, the possibility of printing large-area and flexible substrates and new functionalities are intended to open up fields of application for electronics which conventional (inorganic) electronics were previously inaccessible or only accessible to a limited extent. New developments through printed electronics stand out among other things. a. in applications such as RFID , displays and solar cells .

Basics

Printed electronics combines knowledge and developments in printing technology, electronics as well as chemistry and materials science , especially organic and polymer chemistry . The development of organic electronics, which in turn is based on the development of organic electronic functional materials, is pioneering. In addition to electronic functionalities (conductors, semiconductors , electroluminescence , etc.), the processability in liquid form as a solution, dispersion or suspension of such materials led to the development of printed electronics. In addition, inorganic materials that can be processed in liquid form are also used.

To the extent that printed electronics are components from organic electronics, they differ in structure, functionality and functionality from conventional electronics in some cases. Therefore, the design and optimization of the components and circuits, taking into account the special manufacturing process, play an important role in the development of printed electronics.

Almost all industrial printing processes are used to produce printed electronics, mostly in adapted or modified form. Analogous to conventional picture printing, in which several layers of color are applied on top of one another, electronic thin-film components are produced in printed electronics by printing several functional layers on top of one another. However, both the materials used and the required properties of the printed layers differ significantly from one another, so that the coordinated adaptation and further development of the printing processes used and the printed materials represent the central task in the development of printed electronics.

For example, the maximum resolution of the printed structures in conventional image printing is determined by the resolution of the human eye. Structure sizes below about 20 µm cannot be perceived by the human eye and usually cannot be produced in conventional printing processes. On the other hand, higher resolutions are desirable in electronics, since they directly influence the integration density, but also the functionality of components (especially transistors). The same applies to the accuracy of fit of layers printed on top of one another.

Fluctuations in the thickness and other layer properties as well as the occurrence of holes are only relevant in conventional printing insofar as they can be perceived by the human eye. In contrast, in printed electronics they represent essential quality features for the function of the printed components. Conversely, the visual impression is irrelevant here. In addition, a greater variety of materials must be processed in printed electronics, which results in new requirements for the compatibility of layers printed on one another with regard to wetting, adhesion and mutual loosening.

Printed and conventional electronics as complementary technologies.

Compared to conventional microelectronics, printed electronics are characterized by simpler, more flexible and, above all, more cost-effective production. It should enable electronic applications to be widely distributed, networked and penetrated in everyday life. One example of this is equipping the packaging of everyday goods with printed RFID systems that enable contactless identification in retail and transport. In addition, printed electronics enable the simple implementation and integration of special properties and functionalities (e.g. flexible displays and solar cells).

As a rule, the performance of printed electronics with regard to the respective function remains unchanged, with a few exceptions e.g. B. in the field of light emitting diodes, behind that of conventional electronics. Electronic applications with high switching frequencies and high integration density (so-called "high-end electronics") will be dominated by conventional electronics for the foreseeable future, which, however, also require comparatively high investment and manufacturing costs. In contrast, printed electronics, as a complementary technology, aims to establish "low-cost electronics" for areas of application in which the high performance of conventional electronics is not required.

Procedure

The attractiveness of using printing processes for the production of electronics results primarily from the possibility of producing stacks of microstructured layers (and thus thin-film components) in a much simpler and more cost-effective manner than in conventional electronics. In addition, the possibility of creating new or improved functionalities (e.g. mechanical flexibility) also plays a role. The selection of the printing process used is based on the requirements for the printed layers, the properties of the printed materials and economic and technical considerations with regard to the products manufactured. Of the conventional industrial printing processes, mainly inkjet and screen printing as well as the so-called mass printing processes gravure, offset and flexographic printing are used in printed electronics. While the mass printing processes are mostly used as roll-to-roll processes ( web-fed ), screen and inkjet printing are mostly used as sheet-fed processes . The other variants also exist.

Mass printing process

In comparison to other printing processes, the mass printing processes gravure , offset and flexographic printing are characterized above all by a far superior productivity, which is expressed in an area throughput of many 10,000 m² / h. They are therefore particularly suitable for drastically reducing manufacturing costs when they are applied to the printing of electronics. Due to their high level of development and the variety of available processes and process variants, they simultaneously enable high resolutions of up to 20 µm and below, high layer qualities and a wide range of layer properties and processable materials. In the field of printed electronics, as with other printing processes, there is considerable further development of conventional processes. However, the application and adaptation of mass printing processes for printed electronics not only requires considerable know-how, but also a higher level of effort compared to other printing processes, which is, however, still far below that in conventional electronics. While offset and flexographic printing are primarily used for inorganic and organic conductors (the latter also for dielectrics), gravure printing is particularly suitable for quality-sensitive layers such as organic semiconductors and semiconductor / dielectric boundary layers in transistors due to the high layer quality that can be achieved the high resolution but also for inorganic and organic conductors. It could be shown that organic field effect transistors and integrated circuits built from them can be produced entirely by means of mass printing processes.

Inkjet printing

The inkjet printing is a flexible and multipurpose digital printing process, which can be performed with relatively little effort and a laboratory scale. Therefore, it is probably the most frequently used printing process for printed electronics, but it is inferior to mass printing processes both in terms of surface throughput (typically 100 m² / h) and in terms of resolution (approx. 50 µm). It is particularly suitable for low-viscosity, dissolved materials such as organic semiconductors. In the case of highly viscous materials such as organic dielectrics and dispersed particles such as inorganic metal paints, difficulties arise again and again due to the nozzle clogging. Because the layers are applied drop by drop, their homogeneity is limited. These problems can be alleviated by taking appropriate measures. By parallelization, i.e. H. the simultaneous use of many nozzles (or jetting metering valves ) as well as a pre-structuring of the substrate can also be improved with regard to productivity and resolution. However, in the latter case, non-printing processes are used for the actual structuring step. Inkjet printing is preferred for organic semiconductors in organic field effect transistors (OFETs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), but OFETs completely manufactured using this method were also demonstrated. In addition, front and backplanes of OLED displays, integrated circuits, organic photovoltaic cells (OPVCs) and other components and assemblies can be produced with the help of inkjet printing.

screen printing

Because of the possibility of producing thick layers from pasty materials, screen printing has been used for a long time on an industrial scale in the manufacture of electronics and electrical engineering. In particular, conductor tracks made of inorganic metals (e.g. for circuit boards, antennas or glucose test strips), but also insulating and passivation layers are produced with this process, whereby a comparatively high layer thickness is important, but not a high resolution. Area throughput (approx. 50 m² / h) and resolution (approx. 100 µm) are limited, similar to inkjet printing. This versatile and relatively simple process is also used in printed electronics, especially for conductive and dielectric layers, but organic semiconductors, e.g. B. for OPVCs, and even complete OFETs can be printed.

Further procedures

In addition to conventional processes, new processes that are similar to printing are also used, including microcontact printing and nano-embossed lithography . Layers with µm or nm resolution are produced in a process similar to stamping with soft or hard shapes. The actual structures are often subtractive, e.g. B. by the application of etching masks or by lift-off processes . In this way, z. B. electrodes for OFETs are produced. Pad printing is also occasionally used in a similar way . Occasionally, the use of so-called transfer processes , in which solid structured layers are transferred from a carrier to the substrate, is counted among printed electronics. The electrophotography (the so-called. Toner or laser printing) is not yet in the printed electronics application.

materials

Both organic and inorganic materials are used for printed electronics. The prerequisite for this is, in addition to the respective electronic functionality, that the materials are in liquid form, i.e. H. as a solution, dispersion or suspension. This is particularly true of many organic functional materials that are used as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. With a few exceptions, the inorganic materials are dispersions of metallic micro- or nanoparticles. The starting point for the development of printable electronic functional materials was the discovery of conjugated polymers (Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2000) and their further development into soluble materials. Today there is a wide variety of printable materials from this class of polymers that have conductive , semiconductive , electroluminescent , photovoltaic and other functional properties. Other polymers are mostly used as insulators or dielectrics.

In addition to the respective electronic functionality, the processability in the printing process is essential for the application in printed electronics. These two properties can be in contradiction to one another, so that careful optimization is required. For example, a higher molar mass of conductive polymers tends to have a positive effect on the conductivity of the printed layer, but has a negative effect on the solubility in the solvent used for printing. For processing in the printing process, the properties of the liquid formulation such as viscosity, surface tension and solids content play a role; furthermore, interactions with preceding and subsequent layers such as wetting, adhesion and mutual dissolution as well as the drying process after the deposition of the liquid layer must be taken into account . The use of additives to improve processability, as is the case with conventional printing inks, is very limited in printed electronics, as these often impair the respective function.

The properties of the materials used already largely determine the differences between printed and conventional electronics. On the one hand, the materials used in printed electronics offer a number of advantages that are decisive for the development of this technology. In addition to processability in liquid form, this includes mechanical flexibility and the possibility of adjusting functional properties through chemical modifications (e.g. the color of the emitted light in the active layer of OLEDs). On the other hand, the highly ordered layers and interfaces as used in inorganic electronics cannot generally be produced from organic, in particular polymeric, materials. That leads u. a. to the fact that the conductivity in printed conductors or the charge carrier mobility in printed semiconductors z. Some of them are far below the values ​​in inorganic layers. A point that is currently being intensively investigated is the fact that in most organic materials, hole conduction is preferred to electron conduction. Recent studies indicate that this is a specific property of organic semiconductor / dielectric interfaces that play a central role in OFETs. For this reason, up to now, no n-type components, in contrast to p-type components, could be printed, so that in printed electronics no CMOS technology , but only PMOS technology, is possible up to now . Finally, the stability to environmental influences and the service life of printed electronic functional layers are typically below those of conventional materials.

An essential characteristic of printed electronics is the use of flexible substrates, which has a favorable effect on production costs and enables the production of mechanically flexible electronic applications. While inkjet and screen printing still work on rigid substrates such as glass and silicon in some cases, film and paper are used almost exclusively in mass printing due to their rotary process principle. Due to the cost advantage, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film is often used, and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) and polyimide (PI) film occasionally due to the higher temperature stability . Further important criteria for the use of the substrate are a low roughness and a suitable wettability, which can be adjusted by pretreatments (coating, corona treatment ) if necessary . In contrast to conventional pressure, high absorbency usually has an unfavorable effect. Because of its low cost and the wide range of possible applications, paper is an attractive substrate for printed electronics, but it presents technological difficulties because of its high roughness and absorbency. Nonetheless, relevant developments are underway.

The most common materials used in printed electronics include the conductive polymers poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene, which is doped with polystyrene sulfonate ( PEDOT: PSS ), and polyaniline (PANI). Both polymers are commercially available in various formulations and have already been printed using inkjet, screen and offset printing or screen, flexographic and gravure printing. Alternatively, silver nanoparticles are used in flexographic, offset and inkjet printing, and gold particles in the latter process. In addition to polymeric and metallic materials, carbon is also moving into the focus of this technology as a robust material for printed electronic applications. Numerous polymer semiconductors are processed in inkjet printing, and these are often polthiophenes such as poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and poly-9,9-dioctylfluorencobithiophene (F8T2). The latter material has already been printed in gravure printing. Various electroluminescent polymers are processed in inkjet printing, as are active materials for photovoltaics (e.g. mixtures of P3HT with fullerene derivatives), some of which can also be applied by screen printing (e.g. mixtures of polyphenylenevinylene with fullerene Derivatives). Printable organic and inorganic insulators or dielectrics exist in large numbers and can be processed in various printing processes.

Components and Applications

Almost all components required for electronic applications are also manufactured in printed electronics. Current developments focus on:

  • OFETs , OLEDs and OPVCs ,
  • also diodes, various types of sensors, storage elements and display systems as well as antennas and batteries.
  • Often electrodes and other conductive layers are printed in the components. In particular, the production of the source / drain electrodes of OFETs in inkjet printing and by means of mass printing processes is the subject of intensive developments.
  • In OLEDs and OPVCs, PEDOT: PSS is used as a coating for the anode or as the anode itself and can be applied using inkjet printing. In these two components, the printing of the cathode is still a major challenge due to the lack of suitable printable materials.
  • Likewise, RFID antennas made from metal-containing paint by screen printing are used in commercial systems such. B. to find theft protection.
  • Furthermore, the semiconductor layers in the components are also produced by means of printing processes. For example, inkjet and gravure printing are used for the active layer of OFETs and inkjet or screen printing for that of OLEDs or OPVCs. Fully printed OFETs could be produced using inkjet and screen printing as well as by means of mass printing processes; in the latter case, a fully printed integrated circuit made up of several OFETs was also demonstrated.

Integrated circuits made of OFETs, OLED displays and solar cells based on OPVCs, which are produced using printing processes, as well as other printed components and assemblies should be used wherever the specific properties of printed electronics are advantageous, i.e. H. wherever simple, inexpensive, flexible and large-area electronic components are required.

The use of printed RFID tags is often discussed in this context , since printed electronics are intended to enable the production and integration of such systems at significantly lower costs compared to conventional systems, so that even large numbers of everyday products (so-called single-item -tagging ) becomes possible. In this vision, printed RFID tags are to replace the barcode previously used for goods identification in the future .

On organic, e.g. RFID circuits, some of which are also based on liquid processable materials, have already been demonstrated, but the performance of printed circuits is not yet sufficient for this application. In contrast, simpler, fully printed identification systems can already be found in applications on the market.

In the field of OLED displays , organic electronics have made the most progress in terms of commercial products. Intensive efforts aim to further reduce manufacturing costs through the use of printing processes. In addition to the printing of the cathode, the integration of the control electronics ( backplane ) represents a major challenge . The visions associated with this are mainly flexible and rollable displays as well as large, flexible and thin light sources.

In the field of organic electronics, other display systems with similar functions, such as B. the e-paper developed, the z. Some are about to be launched on the market and will also be produced using printing processes in the future.

Large-area and flexible organic solar cells printed on inexpensive substrates are another vision, the realization of which is being promoted in the context of printed electronics. However, a number of questions still have to be dealt with for this. In addition to the pressure of the cathode, for example, an increase in the efficiency is necessary for economical operation.

It is generally assumed that a few years will pass before the visions associated with printed electronics can be realized, but that in the meantime increasingly simple applications will become established. Not least because of the possibility of simple integration of numerous functionalities, printed electronics is seen as one of the key technologies for the implementation of new paradigms in the application of electronics, which aim at stronger networking and more extensive penetration in many areas of life and with which catchwords such as "ubiquitous computing" and "ambient intelligence" are connected.

Development of printed electronics

The development of printed electronics is closely linked to that of organic electronics. Some important milestones in this development are listed below.

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Integrated circuit produced entirely on foil using mass printing (Chemnitz University of Technology).
  • before 1986: screen printing of metal-containing inks for conductor tracks in electrical engineering / electronics, use of PEDOT: PSS as an antistatic coating, use of organic photoconductors in electrophotography
  • 1986: OFET
  • 1986: OPVC
  • 1987: OLED
  • 1990: OFET with liquid-processed active layer
  • 1990: OLED with liquid-processed active layer
  • 1994: OFET on a flexible substrate
  • 1997: OFET with an active layer produced by screen printing
  • 1998: OLED with an electrode produced by inkjet printing
  • 1998: integrated OLED / OFET pixel with liquid-processed active layers
  • 1998: OLED with an active layer produced by inkjet printing
  • 1999: OPVC on flexible substrate
  • 2000: OFET with electrodes produced by inkjet printing
  • 2000: OLED on a flexible substrate
  • 2001: OFET with an active layer produced by inkjet printing
  • 2001: OFET made entirely by screen printing
  • 2001: OPVC with liquid-processed active layer
  • 2001: OPVC with an active layer produced by screen printing
  • 2004: OPVC with an electrode and an active layer produced by inkjet printing
  • 2005: OFET produced entirely using inkjet printing
  • 2005: OFET with electrodes made from PEDOT: PSS using offset printing
  • 2007: Integrated circuit manufactured entirely using mass printing

literature

Web links

International are currently u. a. the following companies and institutions are active in the field of printed electronics. The list of institutions active in the field of organic electronics is much longer, but the line cannot always be clearly drawn.

Associations

Research institutes

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Z. Bao: Materials and Fabrication Needs for Low-Cost Organic Transistor Circuits . In: Advanced Materials . tape 12 , no. 3 , 2000, pp. 227-230 , doi : 10.1002 / (SICI) 1521-4095 (200002) 12: 3 <227 :: AID-ADMA227> 3.0.CO; 2-U .
  2. ↑ Z. Valy Vardeny, Alan J. Heeger, Ananth Dodabalapur: Fundamental research needs in organic electronic materials . In: Synthetic Metals . tape 148 , no. 1 , 2005, p. 1-3 , doi : 10.1016 / j.synthmet.2004.09.001 .
  3. ↑ H. Kempa, M. Hambsch, S. Voigt: Design of Printed Circuits-New Requirements and New Opportunities (design of printed circuits - new requirements and new possibilities) . In: it-Information Technology . tape 50 , no. 3 , 2008, p. 167-174 .
  4. ↑ a b H.-K. Roth, S. Sensfuß, M. Schrödner, R.-I. Stohn, W. Clemens, A. Bernds: Organic functional layers in polymer electronics and polymer solar cells . In: Materials Science and Technology . tape 32 , no. 10 , 2001, p. 789-794 , doi : 10.1002 / 1521-4052 (200110) 32:10 <789 :: AID-MAWE789> 3.0.CO; 2-E .
  5. ↑ a b c d e A. Blayo and B. Pineaux, Joint sOC-EUSAI Conference, Grenoble, 2005.
  6. ↑ a b U. Fügmann, H. Kempa, K. Preißler, M. Bartzsch, T. Zillger, T. Fischer, G. Schmidt, N. Brandt, U. Hahn, AC Hübler: Printed Electronics is Leaving the Laboratory . In: mst news . No. 2 , 2006, p. 13-16 ( abstract and full text [accessed February 9, 2010]).
  7. ^ JM (Jimmy) Xu: Plastic electronics and future trends in microelectronics . In: Synthetic Metals . tape 115 , no. 1–3 , 2000, pp. 1-3 , doi : 10.1016 / S0379-6779 (00) 00291-5 .
  8. ^ A b James R. Sheats: Manufacturing and commercialization issues in organic electronics . In: Journal of Materials Research . tape 19 , 2004, pp. 1974–1989 , doi : 10.1557 / JMR.2004.0275 .
  9. ↑ PM Harrey, BJ Ramsey, PSA Evans, DJ Harrison: Capacitive-type humidity sensors fabricated using the offset lithographic printing process . In: Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical . tape 87 , no. 2 , 2002, p. 226-232 , doi : 10.1016 / S0925-4005 (02) 00240-X .
  10. ↑ a b J. Siden et al., Polytronic Conference, Wrocław, 2005.
  11. ↑ a b c d Dirk Zielke, Arved C. Hubler, Ulrich Hahn, Nicole Brandt, Matthias Bartzsch, Uta Fugmann, Thomas Fischer, Janos Veres, Simon Ogier: Polymer-based organic field-effect transistor using offset printed source / drain structures . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 87 , no. 12 , 2005, p. 123508 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.2056579 .
  12. ↑ a b T. Mäkelä, S. Jussila, H. Kosonen, TG Bäcklund, HGO Sandberg, H. Stubb: Utilizing roll-to-roll techniques for manufacturing source-drain electrodes for all-polymer transistors . In: Synthetic Metals . tape 153 , no. 1–3 , 2005, pp. 285-288 , doi : 10.1016 / j.synthmet.2005.07.140 .
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g A.C. Huebler, F. Doetz, H. Kempa, HE Katz, M. Bartzsch, N. Brandt, I. Hennig, U. Fuegmann, S. Vaidyanathan, J. Granstrom, S. Liu, A. Sydorenko, T. Zillger, G Schmidt, K. Preissler, E. Reichmanis, P. Eckerle, F. Richter, T. Fischer, U. Hahn: Ring oscillator fabricated completely by means of mass-printing technologies . In: Organic Electronics . tape 8 , no. 5 , 2007, p. 480–486 , doi : 10.1016 / j.orgel.2007.02.009 .
  14. ↑ S. Leppavuori et al., Sensors and Actuators 41-42 (1994) 593.
  15. ↑ a b T. Mäkelä, S. Jussila, M. Vilkman, H. Kosonen, R. Korhonen: Roll-to-roll method for producing polyaniline patterns on paper . In: Synthetic Metals . tape 135-136 , April 2003, pp. 41-42 , doi : 10.1016 / S0379-6779 (02) 00753-1 .
  16. ↑ R. Parashkov, E. Becker, T. Riedl, H. H John W. Kowalsky: Large area electronics using printing methods . In: Proceedings of the IEEE . tape 93 , no. 7 , 2005, p. 1321-1329 , doi : 10.1109 / JPROC.2005.850304 .
  17. ↑ a b c B.-J. de Gans, PC Duineveld, US Schubert: Inkjet Printing of Polymers: State of the Art and Future Developments . In: Advanced Materials . tape 16 , no. 3 , 2004, p. 203-213 , doi : 10.1002 / adma.200300385 .
  18. ↑ a b c V. Subramanian, JMJ Frechet, PC Chang, DC Huang, JB Lee, SE Molesa, AR Murphy, DR Redinger, SK Volkman: Progress toward development of all-printed RFID tags: materials, processes, and devices . In: Proceedings of the IEEE . tape 93 , no. 7 , 2005, p. 1330-1338 , doi : 10.1109 / JPROC.2005.850305 .
  19. ↑ a b c d S. Holdcroft: Patterning π-Conjugated Polymers . In: Advanced Materials . tape 13 , no. 23 , 2001, p. 1753-1765 , doi : 10.1002 / 1521-4095 (200112) 13:23 <1753 :: AID-ADMA1753> 3.0.CO; 2-2 .
  20. ↑ AC Arias, SE Ready, R. Lujan, WS Wong, KE Paul, A. Salleo, ML Chabinyc, R. Apte, Robert A. Street, Y. Wu, P. Liu, B. Ong: All jet-printed polymer thin-film transistor active-matrix backplanes . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 85 , no. 15 , 2004, pp. 3304 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.1801673 .
  21. ↑ a b H. Sirringhaus, T. Kawase, RH Friend, T. Shimoda, M. Inbasekaran, W. Wu, EP Woo: High-Resolution Inkjet Printing of All-Polymer Transistor Circuits . In: Science . tape 290 , no. 5499 , November 15, 2000, pp. 2123-2126 , doi : 10.1126 / science.290.5499.2123 .
  22. ↑ a b c Virang G. Shah, David B. Wallace, Kurt Wachtler: Low-Cost Solar Cell Fabrication by drop-on-demand ink-jet printing. IMAPS Conference, Long Beach, November 18, 2004.
  23. ↑ a b c K. Bock et al., Proceedings IEEE 93 (2005) 1400.
  24. ↑ a b Zhenan Bao, Yi Feng, Ananth Dodabalapur, VR Raju, Andrew J. Lovinger: High-Performance Plastic Transistors Fabricated by Printing Techniques . In: Chemistry of Materials . tape 9 , no. 6 , 1997, pp. 1299-1301 , doi : 10.1021 / cm9701163 .
  25. ^ A b c d Sean E. Shaheen, Rachel Radspinner, Nasser Peyghambarian, Ghassan E. Jabbour: Fabrication of bulk heterojunction plastic solar cells by screen printing . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 79 , no. 18 , October 29, 2001, pp. 2996-2998 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.1413501 .
  26. ↑ Byron D. Gates, Qiaobing Xu, Michael Stewart, Declan Ryan, C. Grant Willson, George M. Whitesides: New Approaches to Nanofabrication: Molding, Printing, and Other Techniques . In: Chemical Reviews . tape 105 , no. 4 , 2005, p. 1171-1196 , doi : 10.1021 / cr030076o .
  27. ↑ Dawen Li, L. Jay Guo: Micron-scale organic thin film transistors with conducting polymer electrodes patterned by polymer inking and stamping . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 88 , no. 6 , February 10, 2006, p. 063513-063513-3 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.2168669 .
  28. ↑ Günther Leising u. a .: Nanoimprinted devices for integrated organic electronics . In: Microelectronic Engineering . tape 83 , no. 4–9 , 2006, pp. 831-838 , doi : 10.1016 / j.mee.2006.01.241 .
  29. ^ A b A. Knobloch, A. Manuelli, A. Bernds, W. Clemens: Fully printed integrated circuits from solution processable polymers . In: Journal of Applied Physics . tape 96 , no. 4 , August 15, 2004, p. 2286-2291 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.1767291 .
  30. ↑ DR Hines, VW Ballarotto, ED Williams, Y. Shao, SA Solin: transfer printing methods for the fabrication of flexible organic electronics . In: Journal of Applied Physics . tape 101 , no. 2 , January 16, 2007, p. 024503-024503-9 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.2403836 .
  31. ^ A b The Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2000: Conductive polymers. (PDF; 1.3 MB) Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, accessed April 2, 2013 .
  32. ↑ André Moliton, Roger C. Hiorns: Review of electronic and optical properties of semiconducting π-conjugated polymers: applications in optoelectronics . In: Polymer International . tape 53 , no. 10 , 2004, p. 1397-1412 , doi : 10.1002 / pi.1587 .
  33. ^ Antonio Facchetti: Semiconductors for organic transistors . In: Materials Today . tape 10 , no. 3 , 2007, p. 28-37 , doi : 10.1016 / S1369-7021 (07) 70017-2 .
  34. ↑ Henning Sirringhaus Jana Zaumseil: Electron and ambipolar transport in organic field-effect transistors. In: Chemical Reviews . tape 107 , no. 4 , 2007, p. 1296-1323 , doi : 10.1021 / cr0501543 .
  35. ↑ DM de Leeuw, MMJ Simenon, AR Brown, REF One Hand: Stability of n-type doped conducting polymers and consequences for polymeric microelectronic devices . In: Synthetic Metals . tape 87 , no. 1 , February 15, 1997, p. 53-59 , doi : 10.1016 / S0379-6779 (97) 80097-5 .
  36. ↑ a b P. M. Harrey, PSA Evans, BJ Ramsey, DJ Harrison: Interdigitated capacitors by offset lithography . In: Journal of Electronics Manufacturing . tape 10 , no. 01 , March 2000, p. 69-77 , doi : 10.1142 / S096031310000006X .
  37. ↑ a b c Jayesh Bharathan, Yang Yang: Polymer electroluminescent devices processed by inkjet printing: I. Polymer light-emitting logo . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 72 , no. 21 , 1998, pp. 2660-2662 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.121090 .
  38. ↑ J. Perelaer, B.-J. de Gans, US Schubert: Ink-jet Printing and Microwave Sintering of Conductive Silver Tracks . In: Advanced Materials . tape 18 , no. 16 , 2006, pp. 2101–2104 , doi : 10.1002 / adma.200502422 ( PDF [accessed February 9, 2010]).
  39. ↑ Yong-Young Noh, Ni Zhao, Mario Caironi, Henning Sirringhaus: Downscaling of self-aligned, all-printed polymer thin-film transistors . In: Nature Nanotechnology . tape 2 , no. 12 , 2007, p. 784-789 , doi : 10.1038 / nnano.2007.365 .
  40. ↑ a b c Stuart P. Speakman, Gregor G. Rozenberg, Kim J. Clay, William I. Milne, Adelina Ille, Ian A. Gardner, Eric Bresler, Joachim HG Steinke: High performance organic semiconducting thin films: Ink jet printed polythiophene [rr-P3HT] . In: Organic Electronics . tape 2 , no. 2 , 2001, p. 65-73 , doi : 10.1016 / S1566-1199 (01) 00011-8 .
  41. ^ Kateri E. Paul, William S. Wong, Steven E. Ready, Robert A. Street: Additive jet printing of polymer thin-film transistors . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 83 , no. 10 , 2003, p. 2070-2072 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.1609233 .
  42. ↑ a b T. Aernouts, T. Aleksandrov, C. Girotto, J. Genoe, J. Poortmans: Polymer based organic solar cells using ink-jet printed active layers . In: Applied Physics Letters . tape 92 , no. 3 , 2008, p. 033306-3 , doi : 10.1063 / 1.2833185 .
  43. ↑ CW Sele, T. von Werne, RH Friend, H. Sirringhaus: Lithography-Free, Self-Aligned Inkjet Printing with Sub-Hundred-Nanometer Resolution . In: Advanced Materials . tape 17 , no. 8 , 2005, p. 997-1001 , doi : 10.1002 / adma.200401285 .
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  45. ↑ Philips press release, Feb. 6, 2006.
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