Ripening
The maturation feeding or maturation feeding is a "specific food intake of various insects after the start of Imaginalstadiums that the maturation of the gonads is required". At the same time, the term is used for the period of time in which this food intake, which is necessary for reaching sexual maturity, takes place.
In German-speaking countries, the term “ripening feed” is more common than “ripening feed”. In the English-speaking world, “maturation feed” is occasionally used in entomological literature as a technical term and foreign word from the German language for “maturation feeding (stage)” or “egg-ripening feeding (period)”.
In addition, "maturation feed" is also used in the broader sense of food intake for the further development of the reproductive organs, for example in caterpillars or snails.
Differentiation from other forms of food intake
As imago, many insects no longer consume any food at all, some of them even have stunted mouthparts . Among the insects that eat food in the imaginal stage, some species need to be ripe, other species become sexually mature even without such food .
The consumption of food by the fully developed insect after reaching sexual maturity is referred to as regeneration food . The food intake before the imago hatches is called larval feed or brood feed . There are insect species with maturation feeding without regeneration feeding and others with regeneration feeding without maturation feeding and still others with both.
Especially among the weevils there are many species that eat the host plant in a special way for the purpose of laying eggs . This is neither regeneration nor maturation corrosion.
Time and duration of ripening
The time frame for the ripening process is determined by the hatching of the imago from the pupa (in the case of complete transformation ) or from the last larval stage (in the case of incomplete transformation ) on the one hand and the ability to successfully mate on the other. In Central Europe, this time interval is usually in spring. In insects with several generations per year, it occurs several times over the year. Usually the ripening process is coupled with swarming. Scarab beetles do not start to mature until they have swarmed.
There are different options for the bark beetles . The printer does the ripening at the breeding site, before swarming. It eats its way back and forth through the bast and only bores through the bark after reaching sexual maturity in order to find a sexual partner or a breeding site. This is also the case with the related species Ips schmutzenhoferi . Other bark beetles leave the pupa cradle and gnaw trees elsewhere before they start the breeding business (post-emerging maturation feeding).
Depending on the species, ripening can only take a few days or several weeks. The two closely related weevils, Ceutorhynchus napi and Ceutorhynchus quadridens , which are harmful to oilseed rape , differ among other things in the length of the ripening feed. The first kind has a short, the second a long one. In addition, the length of the ripening corrosion depends on the temperature. For example, the spotted charcoal weevil ( Ceutorhynchus quadridens ) has a short ripening feed at daytime maximums above 20 ° C, and a long ripening feed at daytime maximums below 20 ° C.
When the beetle hibernates, ripening usually takes place in the following spring. The two weevils just mentioned also differ here. C. napi overwinters in the pupa cradle and eats its maturity in the following spring. C. assimilis, on the other hand, becomes active in autumn and completes a short ripening feed. Then it hibernates in the litter and continues its ripening process in spring. The same form of the ripening feeding, which is interrupted by the winter dormancy, is also found among the bark beetles.
Food source
A wide range of food is used as a source of food for the ripening process. Species of the genus Thanatophilus eat carrion. Some parasites require living animal tissue to feed on. In most of the more closely examined species, plant material serves as a food source for the ripening system. Leaves, bark, bast, etc. are gnawed in mostly species-specific ways.
The shape in which the leaves are gnawed at the edge or in the middle (pitting) usually allows the causer to be identified. The pitting can, for example, be "round" or "elongated between the leaf veins" (in the case of the corn beetle ) or punctiform (in the case of the apple blossom prick ). In the leek miner fly , several feeding points are lined up in a chain-like manner. The bark can be found "the bark of young yew drove comprehensive unwinding" by only simple holes about weevil or "Rindenschälungen on branches". In general, the way in which twigs, shoots or buds are drilled through and wilted or wither during ripening allows clear conclusions to be drawn about the species that caused the damage.
Some animal species are restricted to only one type of plant when they mature. For example, the punctiform ripening on apple leaves is caused by the apple blossom piercer , whereas the punctiform holes in cherry leaves are caused by ripening by the cherry picker Furcipus rectirostris . With other animal species, a more or less wide range of host plants is used, which are then used to different degrees. In a series of tests, for example, it is tested which races of a timber species are preferred or avoided by the pests that use them for ripening - and thus more or less damaged.
The same applies to the laying of eggs with larval development and the maturation feed. Development and ripening often take place on the same plant species. In other species, the range of plant species for ripening is greater than that for development. In many species the herbivore has absolutely nothing to do with the place of development. There are indications that the parts of the plant used for ripening (e.g. pollen ) must complete the food (e.g. wood) consumed during larval feeding.
Presumably, at least in some hoverflies, the food not only provides the energy that is required for survival and further development up to sexual maturity, but also the special ingredients that are necessary for egg maturation.
For the protection of species is important to remember that a species may become extinct even when necessary for the maturation feeding plants are not (any more), even if the conditions for larval development are very good.
Differences in the sexes
In the longhorn beetle species Anoplophora glabripennis there are clear differences between the two sexes with regard to the maturation feed. The males do not need any maturation food. The sperm are ripe after the pupa hatches and successful copulation is possible. The ovaries of the females, on the other hand, needed to be fully functional.
In the hoverflies , the females ingest much more pollen than the males, who ingest more nectar. It is believed that the pollen is necessary for the egg to ripen. It is unclear to what extent these two examples represent individual cases within the insect or whether a different manifestation of maturation damage is more widespread in males and females.
Occurrence and expression of ripening in relation to the insect system
There are almost no studies on how the degree of kinship among insect species is expressed in the form of ripening. As the examples given show, the results are not uniform. On the one hand, related species can show similarities in terms of their maturation consumption, and on the other hand, with closely related species, clear differences in the form of maturation consumption can be identified.
Maturation feeding has mainly been examined in more detail in the case of pests and a few beneficial insects ( ladybirds and species of interest for biological weed control). The pests mainly species from the families of bark beetles and weevils to name. In both cases there are differences in the type of ripening corrosion. Species from many other beetle families, such as cockchafer ( scarab beetle ) and Colorado potato beetle ( leaf beetle ), are also harmful when they mature. However, ripening does not only occur in beetles , but also in flies , for example . The cherry fruit fly takes about 10 days to ripen. Not only insects with complete metamorphosis , but also those with incomplete metamorphosis, show maturation damage, for example grasshoppers and dragonflies . Many dragonfly species leave their breeding habitats to feed on maturity and only return to them after they have reached sexual maturity.
Apart from the similarities and differences within different taxa already mentioned in the previous chapters , there are few other results.
Within the family of longhorn beetles in the subfamilies of Prioninae and Cerambycinae no food intake necessary to achieve sexual maturity, in the subfamily Lamiinae contrast, imagines require nitrogenhaltige food, to reproduce successfully.
Within the subfamily Scarabaeinae of scarab beetles of maturation feeding is the norm. The species Onthophagus gazella living in the dung is an exception.
An interesting aspect regarding the connection between ripening and relationship can be found in the genus Tomicus . In populations in Europe and China believe they were, both would be the type Tomicus piniperda belong. In Europe, the newly hatched adults are distributed among various neighboring trees to feed on maturity and do no serious damage there. In China, on the other hand, the adults concentrate on a few trees for ripening and damage them considerably. Therefore a DNA analysis was carried out on the two populations. This revealed that the difference in the DNA examined in the two populations was of the order of magnitude of the differences in different species. The outwardly hardly distinguishable individuals of the Chinese population have meanwhile been raised to a species of their own.
Importance to humans
In the majority of insects, ripening is a factor that does not matter from a human point of view. Human intervention changed the composition of the plant world, which is what makes the mass reproduction of certain insect species possible in the first place. Most of these insects do not become pests by feeding on maturation but by feeding on larvae. This outweighs, for example, with the blossom pickers ( apple blossom picker , pear bud picker and cherry picker ) clearly compared to the ripening damage.
The best-known examples of damage caused by ripening feeding are field cockchafer and forest cockchafer , although here too the damage caused by the grubs predominates. The two cockchafer species do not differ noticeably in terms of their maturation consumption. A large number of tree and shrub species can be used as host plants. It is essential for the selection that the leaves are still young. The feeding plants also include fruit trees (cockchafer) and trees that are important for wood production, such as oak (cockchafer, Fig. 1). In the flying years, the ripening damage can be so severe that the trees are almost defoliated. Correspondingly, in the year of the mass occurrence, serious failures can be found in the growth of wood or the production of fruit.
For some pests, the time of maturation is early enough to take effective measures to combat the causer or to choose the appropriate one from various possible measures. In the case of other species, such measures must be taken before they mature.
In some cases it is not the ripening as such that is harmful, but the associated transmission of pests. The elm beetles , for example, transmit fungi that cause the elms to die . The species of the longhorn beetle genus Monochamus transmit the pine sapwood nematode , which damages pines .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Deutsche Phytomedizinische Gesellschaft, reference glossary of phytomedical technical terms ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Langenscheidt specialist dictionary biology English, Langenscheidt Fachverlag 2004, ISBN 3861172283 , ISBN 9783861172284 , p. 243
- ↑ Buchdrucker ( Memento of the original from December 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Ips schmutzenhoferi ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 840 kB)
- ↑ McNee, Wood, Storer,: Pre-Emergence Feeding in Bark Beetler, Environmental Entomology 29 (3) 495-501 2000
- ↑ Landpost March 3, 2007
- ↑ a b Zellner / Wagner information on diseases and pests in winter rape, Bavarian State Institute for Agriculture ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ BASF crop protection pages
- ↑ again Kohlschotenrüssler ( memento of the original from November 18, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Langor, DW, Hergert, CR Life history, behavior, and mortality of the western ash bark beetle, Hylesinus californicus (Swaine) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in southern Alberta Canadian Entomologist, as PDF ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ H. v. Lengerken (1983): Studies on the life phenomena of the Silphini (Coleoptera) , Zoomorphology, Volume 33, Number 4 / December 1983, pp. 654-666, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, ISSN 0720-213X (print) ISSN 1432-234X (online ), doi : 10.1007 / BF00407572
- ↑ Leaflet 161 of the Swiss Confederation on the Apple Blossom Piercer ( memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Franz Meier, Roland Engesser, Beat Forster, Oswald Odermatt, Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.1 MB)
- ↑ Leaflet 123 of the Swiss Confederation on the cherry picker ( memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Felix L. Wäckers, Jörg Romeis, Paul van Rijn: Nectar and Pollen Feeding by Insect Herbivores and Implications for Multitrophic Interactions Annual Review of Entomology Vol. 52: 301-323 (January 2007) doi : 10.1146 / annurev.ento.52.110405. 091352 .
- ↑ NA Irvin et al .: The Phenology and pollen feeding of three hoverfly (Diptera: Syrphidae) species .... New Zealand Journal of Zoologiy, 1999, Vol. 26: 105-115 as PDF ( Memento of the original from August 20 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Dejia Li, Yining Liu: Correlation between Sexual Development, Age, Maturatio Feeding and Mating of adult Anoplophora glabripennis Journal of Northwest Forestry College 12 (4): 19-23 (1997) as PDF
- ↑ Hickman, Lövei, Wratten: Pollen feeding by adults of the hoverfly Melanostoma fasciatum (Diptera: Syrphidae), New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 1995, Vol. 22. 387-392 Abstract as PDF ( Memento of the original from April 7, 2009 in Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Ökolandbau de .: Cherry fruit fly ( Memento of the original dated May 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Libellen change of location to the ripening food ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ John S. Edwards: On the Reproduction of Prionoplus reticularis , with General Remarks on Reproduction in the Cerambycidae, as PDF ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ LMHanks INFLUENCE OF THE LARCAL HOST PLANT ON REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES OF CERAMBYCID BEETLES Annu.Rev.Entomol.1999.44: 483-505 as PDF ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ^ Ripening damage at Scarabaeinae
- ↑ Genetic Study of the forest pest Tomicus piniperda in Yunnan province (China) compared to Europe. Heredidy (2004) 93, 416-422 coi 10.1038 / sj.h.dy.6800518 online July 28, 2004
- ↑ Lawrance R. Kirkendall, Massimo Faccoli, Hui Ye: Description of the Yunnan shoot borer Tomicus yunnanensis Kirkendall & Faccoli sp.n. ZOOTAXA 1819: 25-39 (2008) ISSN 1175-5326 (print edition), ISSN 1175-5334 (online edition) as PDF
- ↑ Plant Protection Service Baden-Württemberg, Maikäfer ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ The Hamburg Elm Program ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Pine sapwood nematode
