Russian nihilism

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The Russian nihilism ( lat. Nihil , nothing 'and ism ) includes both a philosophical current as well as a socio-cultural movement. The main feature of Russian nihilism is the rejection of authorities - state, church and family - and the pursuit of a free and atheistic society . The study of (natural) sciences provides the knowledge for an ideal new social order, education is the way to self-emancipation. Russian nihilism is characterized by low esteem for the humanities and the arts, which can go as far as anti-aesthetics.

Chronological order

In a broader sense, the entire reign of Alexander II (1855–1881) is given as the time frame for Russian nihilism. This classification is mainly made in western historiography. A distinction is made between a founding phase (1860–1869) and a revolutionary phase (1870–1881).

Supported by the spirit of optimism at the time of the reforms under Alexander II, a socio-cultural counter-milieu to the old Russian aristocratic society formed in the founding phase of Russian nihilism. New models of society were designed in literature and philosophy .

The revolutionary phase of Russian nihilism began with the Revolutionary Catechism (1869) by Sergei Nechayev . Assassinations on representatives of the tsarist rule and the murder of the tsar were considered the basis for the creation of a new society.

In a narrower sense, Russian nihilism is set at the time between Alexander II's accession to power (1855) and the first assassination attempt on the Tsar (1866) or the emergence of the Russian populist movement Narodniki around 1870. The Russian historiography as well as recent cultural studies research make this classification.

There are also two phases of Russian nihilism. The first phase (1856–1861) is characterized by optimism and political tolerance . The (aristocratic) society and the nihilistic milieu are in harmony with one another. Intellectuals like Alexander Herzen , Nikolai Gavrilowitsch Tschernyshevsky and Nikolai Dobroljubow belong in this phase. The second phase (1862–1866) is characterized by social unrest, the state reaction and a skepticism regarding the possibilities of social change. Dmitri Pissarew (see Confino, Pozefsky) provides the theoretical background . Some scholars regard only Pissarev and his followers as nihilists.

Historical background

The 1850s and 1860s were years of social upheaval in the Russian Empire . It was a period of cultural, social, economic and political change. The lost Crimean War (1853–56) pointed to Russia's backwardness . When Alexander II took office in 1855, a mood of reform and optimism spread within the state apparatus as well as among the aristocratic population.

The time of great reforms began. In addition to the liberation of the peasants and the reform of the judiciary, it was above all the educational reforms and the relaxation of censorship , combined with the permission to set up private magazines, that formed the basis for Russian nihilism as a philosophical and socio-cultural movement.

In the field of education, the opportunities for all population groups expanded . The Sunday School Movement (1859–1862) was formed from the non-governmental side, with the aim of bringing education to the people and the provinces. In addition, educational self-education circles, literacy societies, libraries and bookshops were founded everywhere, to which everyone, including women, had access. After the Crimean War, there was a greater interest in education on the part of the state. There was an expansion of high school and elementary school education, women were given brief access to universities (1859–1861 / 63).

With the relaxation of censorship and the establishment of many new non-governmental journals and magazines, a kind of free opinion and press landscape emerged for the first time. Many Western European and Enlightenment writings have been translated into Russian. Intellectual debates, including the women's issue , were initiated and discussed publicly. The newly created publications and private circles served as a forum.

In contrast to the (old) aristocratic society and its norms, a radical democratic-nihilistic milieu emerged that adhered to liberal-egalitarian ideas and drafted its own rules of behavior, clothing and lifestyle. At the same time, this was accompanied by the development of new gender roles . With the establishment of residential communities and work cooperatives ( Artels ) as well as the principle of fictitious marriage, alternatives to traditional female life courses in the home and family were created and women were given access to the newly emerging extra-state public spaces.

The political and economic changes, however, were accompanied by social unrest; the peasants revolted (1861), students demonstrated (1861/62), discontent grew among many nobles who experienced social decline as a result of the reforms. A wave of urban reform fires swept over Saint Petersburg (1862), and there was an uprising in Poland (1863). Alarmed by these events, the tsarist government tried to restrict public spaces again.

In 1862, two radical democratic publications, the contemporary (Russian Современник) and the Russian word (Russian Русское Слово), which were regarded as communicative centers and mouthpieces for new ideas, were initially closed for eight months . After the tsarist attack in 1866, they were finally banned entirely.

The St. Petersburg University was in 1861 as a result of student unrest closed until the revision of its statutes. In 1863 women were banned from studying in Russia. In addition to the widely discussed, biologically determined intellectual unsuitability of women for university studies, the aim was to protect them from radical democratic influences. As a result, Russian noble women flocked in large numbers to Western European universities, especially in Switzerland , Germany and France , to pursue their desire for higher education.

In addition, attempts were made to eliminate the circles as another area of ​​the extra-state public . A secret circular from the Ministry of the Interior to all governors of the Russian Empire ordered not to tolerate any societies and circles or external features that would suggest belonging to them.

These events between reform orientation and temporary opening up to the emergence of new social spaces and the reaction that soon ensued - combined with the return of censorship and complete, official surveillance of public life - formed the background of experience of the Russian nihilists.

The term nihilist (Russian Нигилист) spread in the Russian- speaking area through the novel Fathers and Sons (Russian Отцы и дети, 1862) by Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenew . The name refers to the main hero of the novel, Basarow, whose character is based on the anti-authoritarian movement of the 1860s. Turgenev used the term disparagingly.

Some intellectuals close to the nihilistic movement tried to redefine the concept of nihilism in a positive way, and some of the 1860s adopted this concept as a self-designation. In general, however, the term had negative connotations and appeared mainly in police files and legal records of the tsarist government or in anti-philist literature. From the 1870s onwards, the term nihilist was increasingly used in connection with assassins who wanted to kill the tsar or representatives of the tsarist government.

In contemporary testimonies and in research literature one can often find the more neutral terms sixties (Russian щестидесятники / щестидесятницы), radicals / radical democrats (Russian. Радикалы) (радыкал-see.

Philosophical current

Russian nihilism is not a mature philosophy, but rather a bundle of ideas. References are the French Enlightenment, French early socialism , British utilitarianism and German materialism . Novels, magazines, universities and schools as well as private circles (Russian кружки) were places for the exchange of new ideas. The social conditions are dealt with in Russian literature, literary figures are images of real people and, conversely, act as role models among the nihilists.

Nikolai Tschernyshevsky links in his novel What to do? (Russian Что делать ?, 1863) to Turgenev's literary motif of the generation conflict. For the generation of sons, he uses the positive term new people, not nihilists. The main female character Vera Pavlovna is one of the first literary prototypes of the new woman (Russian новая женщина). Chernyshevsky's novel reflects the zeitgeist so realistically that it becomes the standard work of its time and a role model within the radical democratic milieu.

Magazines are accorded great importance as a medium and catalyst for a new society. The key to changing society, however, lies in one's own emancipation , which is not selfish, but already serves the general public interest. The question of women is one of the central topics in the magazines. Mikhail Mikhailov writes articles in Contemporary in support of female emancipation.

Socio-cultural movement

Russian nihilism as a socio-cultural movement emerged in contrast to the old aristocratic society. The nihilistic milieu was characterized by a certain style of clothing, its own habitus, the reading of canonized texts and the practice of new ways of life ( commune , work cooperatives , equal partnerships ).

People dressed in black, wore a Jacobin hat and kept an informal and direct tone. Men had long hair and a beard, which in Russian society at that time was only common among peasants. In contrast to the elaborate presentation of women at noble balls, where they presented themselves for a lucrative marriage, the new woman dressed modestly, wore short hair and was more interested in a good book or a serious discussion than attending a ball. Contrary to the traditional, ritualized and gender-specific manners of the aristocratic society, she cultivated an equal tone of communication with men.

They met for studies and discussions in private circles, university teachers and students gave private lectures and lessons for women who were denied access to studies. Municipalities such as the Slepzow municipality and work cooperatives were founded. The ideal of a partnership was a marriage based on love and consisting of mutual consent.

literature

Autobiographies

  • Ekatarina I. Zhukovskaya: Записки. Воспоминания. (Records. Memories.) Moscow 2001, ISBN 5-7784-0153-1 .
  • Sofja Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja : Воспоминания и письма. (Memories and letters.) Moscow 1961.
  • Александра Андреевна Комарова: Одна изъ многихъ. Изъ запизокъ нигилистки. (One of many. From the notes of a nihilist.) Saint Petersburg 1880.
  • Иосиф Игнатьевич Малевич: Воспоминания. (Memories.) In: Русская Старина. No. 12, 1890, pp. 615-654
  • Лонгин Федорович Пантелеев: Воспоминания (Memories.) Moscow 1958.
  • Lyudmila I. Saraskina: Вослюбленная Достоевского. Аполлинария Суслова. биография в документах, письмах, материалах. (Dostoyevsky's mistress. Apollinaria Prokofjewna Suslowa : biography in documents, letters, materials.) Soglasie, Moscow 1994, ISBN 5-86884-031-3 .
  • Sergej M. Stepniak: Underground Russia. Revolutionary Profiles and Sketches from Life. (Russia underground. Revolutionary profiles and excerpts from life.) Hyperion, Westport / Conn. 1973, ISBN 0-88355-041-5 (reprint of the 1883 edition).
  • Polina Suslowa : Dostoyevsky's eternal friend. My intimate diary. Ullstein, Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-548-30399-4 .
  • JN Vodowozowa: In the early red of time. Memories 1848-1863. Kiepenheuer, Weimar 1972.

Scientific literature

German

In another language

  • Daniel R. Brower: Training the Nihilists. Education and Radicalism in Tsarist Russia. (Education as a nihilist. Education and radicalism in tsarist Russia). Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1975, ISBN 0-8014-0874-1 .
  • Michael Confino: Révolte juvénile et contre-culture. Les nihilistes russes des “années 60”. (Youth revolts and counterculture. The Russian nihilists of the 1960s.) In: Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique. 31 (1), 1990, ISSN  0008-0160 , 489-538.
  • Christine Frances Donaldson: Russian Nihilism of the 1860's. A science-based social movement. (Russian nihilism of the 1860s. A scientifically founded social movement.) Ann Arbor / Michigan 1979 (Dissertation Ohio State University).
  • Ronald Hingley: Nihilists. Russian Radicals and Revolutionaries in the Reign of Alexander II, 1855-81. (Nihilists. Russian radicals and revolutionaries in the reign of Alexander II, 1855-81.) Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1967.
  • Charles Moser: Anti-nihilism in the Russian Novel of the 1860's. (Anti-nihilism in Russian novels of the 1860s.) Mouton, The Hague 1964.
  • Irina Paperno: Chernyshevsky and the Age of Realism. A Study in the Semiotics of Behavior. (Chernychevsky and the era of realism. A study of behavioral semiotics.) Stanford University Press, Stanford / CA 1988, ISBN 0-8047-1453-3 .
  • Peter C. Pozefsky: The Nihilist Imagination. Dmitrii Pisarev and the Cultural Origins of Russian Radicalism (1860–1868). (The nihilistic conception. Dmitrii Pisarev and the cultural roots of Russian radicalism.) Lang, New York 2003, ISBN 0-8204-6161-X .
  • Arja Rosenholm: Gendering Awakening. Feminity and the Russian Woman Question of the 1860s. (Waking up from gender categories . Femininity and the Russian women's issue in the 1860s.) Aleksanteri Institute, Helsinki 1999, ISBN 951-45-8892-4 .
  • Richard Stites : The Woman's Liberation Movement in Russia. Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism. 1860-1930. (The women's liberation movement in Russia. Feminism , nihilism and Bolshevism . 1860-1930.) Princeton University Press, Princeton / NJ 1991, ISBN 0-691-10058-6 .
  • Franco Venturi: Roots of Revolution. A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in 19th Century Russia. (Roots of the Revolution. A History of Popular and Socialist Movements in 19th Century Russia.) Phoenix, London 2001, ISBN 1-84212-253-3 .
  • Wilhelm Goldbaum: Nihilism and Russian poetry (1. Origin and essence of nihilism) . In: The Gazebo . Issue 31, 1881, p. 511-514 ( full text [ Wikisource ]).

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ zum.de
  2. ↑ See references to Confino, Donaldson, Paperno and Pozefsky.
  3. ↑ Christine Frances Donaldson: Russian Nihilism of the 1860's. A science-based social movement. Ann Arbor / Michigan 1979 (Dissertation Ohio State University)