John Fage and Independent station: Difference between pages

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An '''independent station''' is [[television]] terminology used to describe a [[television station]] broadcasting in the [[United States]] or [[Canada]] that is not affiliated with any [[Television network|network]].
'''John Donnelly Fage''' (1921-2002) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[historian]] noted for his work on [[African history]].


==Overview==
He went to [[Cambridge University]] ([[Magdalene College]])<ref>
===1950s-1960s===
{{cite web
During the 1950s and 1960s, independent stations filled their broadcast hours with movies, sports, cartoons, [[newsreels]], filmed [[Travel literature|travelogues]], and some locally-produced programs, including newscasts. Independents on the air during this period would [[sign-on|sign on]] at times later than network-affiliated stations, some in the middle of the morning.
| title = John D. Fage
| publisher = [[School of Oriental and African Studies]]
| url = http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=6033&inst_id=19
}} Mentions the British Library ''Who's Who'' as a source for biography.</ref> for his undergraduate, Master's and Ph.D. (1949, ''The achievement of self-government in southern Rhodesia, 1898-1923''). After his Ph.D. he joined the newly founded University of Gold Coast (now [[University of Ghana]]) at [[Accra]], which was formed under the [[Asquith Commission]] and had a
'scheme of special relationship' with the [[University of London]].<ref>
{{cite web
| title = The universities in Ghana
| author = G. F. Daniel, Registrar, University of Ghana
| publisher = Commonwealth Universities Year Book 1997-98; Vol.1; pp 649-656
| url = http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~univghana/ghanahed.htm
| date = December 1996
| accessdate = 2007-08-13
}}</ref> He spent a decade here (1949-1959), developing his interest in the history of Western Africa, and particularly the [[African Slave Trade]], on which he was to publish extensively over the coming decade. The University started facing funding problems after 1955,<ref>
{{cite web
| title = David Balme at the University College of the Gold Coast
| author = John Fage
| url = http://www.207squadron.rafinfo.org.uk/balme/fage_balme.htm
| accessdate = 2007-08-13
}}</ref> and many of the senior Cambridge staff left.
In 1957, after Ghana gained independence, he was appointed its Deputy Principal. However, in 1959 he returned to Britain to join the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] (1959-1963) and then the [[University of Birmingham]], where he founded the [[Centre of West African Studies]] (CWAS).<ref name=bio>
{{cite web
| title = John Donnelly Fage, 1921-2002
| author = P.F. de Moraes Farias
| url = http://www.hf.uib.no/i/smi/sa/14/14Fage.pdf
}}</ref> Here he spent two very productive decades (1963-1984), holding several senior administrative posts including Vice-Principal (1981–1984).


Another source of programming became available to independent stations by the mid-1960s: [[Rerun]]s of network programs which, after completing their initial runs, were sold into [[Television syndication|syndication]].
Fage's early work includes ''Introduction to the History of West Africa'' (Cambridge University Press 1955, three editions), which was rewritten as ''A History of West Africa: An introductory survey'' (Cambridge U.P. 1969). His
''An Atlas of African History'' (London: Edward Arnold 1958) is a widely known reference (2nd ed. 1978). The ambitious 600-page ''A History of Africa''
(London: Hutchinson 1978),
covers the entire continent from the
Neolithic to the late twentieth century, was widely referenced (3d ed. Routledge 1995).


===1970s===
In a long collaboration with [[Roland Oliver]] (who was his contemporary at Cambridge and visited him in Ghana), he founded the ''Journal of African History'', and
By the start of the 1970s, independent stations typically aired children's programming in the morning and afternoon, and movies and other adult-oriented shows (some stations aired paid religious programs) during middays. They counter-programmed local network stations' news programs with syndicated reruns&mdash;usually [[situation comedies|situation comedies (sitcoms)]] and hour-long dramas&mdash;in the early evening, and movies during [[prime time]] and [[late night television|late-night]] hours. In some areas, independents carried network programs that were not aired on a local affiliate.
also edited the authoritative eight volume ''Cambridge history of Africa'',
(1975 to 1986).
Their ''Short History of Africa'' (Penguin 1962) ran to six editions (1988), and has been translated into twelve languages.<ref name=bio/>


In larger markets (such as [[New York City]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and others), independent stations benefited from a [[Federal Communications Commission]] ruling in effect from 1971 to 1995 barring network-affiliated stations within the top 50 television markets from [[[[Prime Time Access Rule|airing off-network programs]] in the two hours preceding prime time. As a result, syndicated reruns became more readily available to independents.
==Other works==
*1969. "Slavery and the slave trade in the context of African history," ''Journal of African History'' 10:393-404.
*1975. "The effect of the slave trade on African Population," in R.J.A.R. Rathbone and R.P. Moss, ''The Population Factor in African Studies'', p.15-23.
*(with Maureen Verity) ''An Atlas of African History''. 2nd ed. London: E. Arnold, 1978.
*''Ghana: A Historical Interpretation'', 1983.
*''A Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa Published in European Languages'', May 1987.
*J. Desmond Clark, J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, and Richard Gray, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'' (8 vols.), Nov 1986.
*''A History of West Africa: An Introductory Survey'' (1969)


==References==
===1980s===
In the 1980s, television syndicators began offering original, first-run programming such as ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', a trend that primarily benefited independent stations. Independents scheduled first-run programs during prime time and on weekends. Some stations in larger markets ventured into local news broadcasts, usually at 10:00 p.m. in the [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|Eastern]] and [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]] time zones, and 9:00 p.m. in the [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central]] and [[Mountain Time Zone|Mountain]] time zones. Network stations aired their late newscasts an hour later.
{{reflist}}


More than 300 independent stations existed in the United States in the mid-1980s. Many belonged to the [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/A/htmlA/associationo/associationo.htm Association of Independent Television Stations], a group similar to the [[National Association of Broadcasters]], and which lobbied the FCC on behalf of independents.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fage, John Donnelly}}

[[Category:1921 births]]
In the United States, many independent stations were commonly-owned. Companies that operated three or more independents included:
[[Category:2002 deaths]]
*[[Chris-Craft Industries]], and its subsidiary United Television
[[Category:Africanists]]
*[[Christian Broadcasting Network]]
[[Category:Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge]]
*[[Clear Channel Communications]]
[[Category:British historians]]
*[[Cox Enterprises]]
[[Category:Historians of Africa]]
*[[Gaylord Entertainment Company|Gaylord Broadcasting]]
*[[Grant Broadcasting System II|Grant Broadcasting]]
*[[Kaiser Broadcasting]], and its successor [[Field Communications]]
*[[Meredith Corporation]]
*[[Metromedia (media company)|Metromedia]]
*[[Pappas Telecasting Companies]]
*[[Renaissance Broadcasting]]
*[[RKO General]]
*[[The E. W. Scripps Company|Scripps-Howard Broadcasting]]
*[[Sinclair Broadcast Group]]
*[[Taft Broadcasting|Taft Television and Radio Company]]
*[[Tribune Broadcasting]]
*[[TVX Broadcast Group]], and its successor [[Paramount Stations Group]]

In 1986, several groups of independents, led by the Metromedia stations, formed the [[Fox Broadcasting Company]] or FOX, the fourth U.S. broadcast-television network. Many affiliates, however, still filled its broadcast hours with independent-like programming as FOX only programmed two hours a day, leaving over 20 hours daily for syndicated shows. FOX still only offers two hours of programming on weekdays and six hours a day on weekends.

===1990s-2000s===
True independent stations have become rare. In 1995, many remaining independent stations formed the [[WB Television Network|WB]] and [[United Paramount Network|UPN]] networks, and other stations banded together for the Pax (now [[ION Television]]) network in 1998. Several stations affiliated with The WB and UPN became independent again when the networks merged to form the [[CW Television Network]] in September 2006. Some of the newly-independent stations subsequently found a new network home through [[My Network TV]]. Similar to FOX affiliates, however, many such stations still behave much like independents, as they program far more hours a day than an affiliate of the [[Big Three television networks]].

Current independents follow a very different program format than their predecessors. While sitcoms are still popular, expanded newscasts and other syndicated product such as talk shows, courtroom shows, and paid programs such as [[infomercials]] and Christian religious programs have replaced children's shows and movies.

== A list of notable U.S. independent stations, past and present ==
{{disputed-list|date=March 2008}}
(a partial listing; '''bold text''' denotes a current independent station)<br>
*'''Albany/Schenectady/Troy, N.Y.:''' [[WXXA-TV]]
*'''Atlanta:''' '''[[WPCH-TV|WJRJ-TV/WTCG/WTBS/WPCH-TV]]''', [[WGCL-TV|WGNX]], [[WATL-TV]], [[WUPA|WVEU]], [[WUVG|WHOT]]
*'''Austin, Texas:''' [[KEYE-TV|KBVO]]
*'''Baltimore:''' [[WBFF]], [[WNUV-TV]]
*'''Birmingham, Alabama:''' [[WTTO]], [[WABM]]
*'''Boston:''' '''[[WSBK-TV]]''', [[WLVI-TV]], [[WFXT|WXNE-TV]], [[WUNI|WSMW-TV/WHLL]], [[WBPX|WQTV]], [[WZMY-TV|WNDS/WZMY-TV]]
*'''Buffalo, New York:''' [[WUTV]], [[WNLO]], [[WNGS]], [[WNYO-TV]]
*'''Charlotte:''' '''[[WAXN-TV]]''', [[WCCB]], [[WJZY]], [[WCNC-TV|WRET-TV]], '''[[WHKY-TV]]'''
*'''Chicago:''' [[WGN-TV]], [[WFLD-TV]], [[WSNS-TV]], '''[[WCIU-TV]]''', [[WPWR-TV]], [[WGBO-TV]]
*'''Cincinnati:''' [[WXIX-TV]], [[WSTR-TV|WIII-TV/WSTR-TV]]
*'''Cleveland/Akron:''' [[WUAB]], [[WBNX-TV]], [[WKBF-TV]]/[[WQHS-TV|WCLQ]], [[WOIO]]
*'''Columbus, Ohio:''' [[WTTE]], [[WWHO|WWAT]]
*'''Dallas/Fort Worth:''' [[KDFI-TV]], [[KTVT]], '''[[KTXA]]''', [[KXTX-TV]], '''[[KFWD]]''', [[KDAF|KRLD-TV]], [[KSTR-TV]], '''[[KLDT]]'''
*'''Dayton, Ohio:''' [[WRGT-TV]]
*'''Detroit:''' [[WKBD-TV]], [[WMYD|WXON]], [[WWJ-TV|WGPR-TV]], '''[[WADL-TV]]'''
*'''Denver:''' [[KWGN-TV]], [[KDVR]], [[KTVD]]
*'''Des Moines:''' [[KDSM-TV|KCBR/KDSM-TV]]
*'''Fresno/Visalia:''' [[KMPH-TV]], [[KAIL]]
*'''Grand Rapids/Kalamazoo/Battle Creek:''' [[WXMI]]
*'''Green Bay/Appleton''' [[WACY|WXGZ/WACY]], [[WGBA]]
*'''Greensboro/Winston-Salem/High Point:''' [[WXLV-TV|WGNN-TV/WJTM/WNRW-TV]], [[WMYV-TV|WGGT]]
*'''Greenville/Spartanburg/Asheville:''' [[WMYA-TV|WAXA/WFBC-TV]], [[WGGS-TV]], [[WHNS]], [[WYCW|WASV-TV]], [[WNEG-TV]]
*'''Harrisburg/Lancaster/York: '''[[WPMT]]
*'''Hartford/New Haven:''' [[WUVN|WHCT]], [[WTXX]], [[WTIC-TV]], [[WCTX|WTVU]], [[WHPX|WTWS]]
*'''Houston:''' [[KIAH (TV)|KHTV]], [[KRIV-TV]], [[KTXH]], '''[[KNWS-TV]]'''
*'''Honolulu:''' [[KHNL|KIKU-TV/KHNL]], [[KFVE]]
*'''Indianapolis:''' [[WTTV]], [[WXIN (TV)|WXIN]], [[WNDY-TV|WMCC-TV]]
*'''Jacksonville:''' [[WAWS]], '''[[WJXT]]''', [[WTEV|WNFT]]
*'''Kansas City, Missouri:''' [[KSHB-TV|KBMA-TV/KSHB-TV]], [[KSMO-TV|KZKC/KSMO-TV]] '''[[KMCI-TV]]'''
*'''Lafayette, Louisiana:''' [[KADN]]
*'''Las Vegas:''' [[KVVU-TV]], [[KRLR|KVMY-TV]], [[KFBT|KVCW-TV]]
*'''Louisville:''' [[WDRB-TV]]
*'''Los Angeles:''' [[KTLA]], '''[[KCAL-TV|KHJ-TV/KCAL-TV]]''', [[KTTV]], [[KCOP]], '''[[KWHY-TV]]''', '''[[KDOC-TV]]'''
*'''Memphis:''' [[WPTY-TV]], [[WLMT|WMKW-TV/WLMT]]
*'''Miami/Fort Lauderdale:''' [[WFOR-TV|WCIX]], [[WBFS-TV]], [[WSFL-TV|WDZL]], [[WAMI-TV]], [[WSCV|WKID]]
*'''Milwaukee:''' [[WVTV]], [[WCGV-TV]], [[WDJT-TV]], '''[[WMLW-CA]]'''
*'''Minneapolis/Saint Paul:''' [[KARE|WTCN-TV]], [[KMSP-TV]], [[WFTC|KITN-TV]], '''[[KSTC-TV]]''', [[WUCW|KTMA/KLGT]]
*'''Mobile/Pensacola:''' [[WPMI]], [[WJTC]]
*'''Nashville:''' [[WZTV]], [[WUXP-TV|WCAY-TV/WXMT]]
*'''New Orleans:''' [[WGNO]], [[WNOL-TV]]
*'''New York City:''' [[WNYW|WNEW-TV]], [[WWOR-TV|WOR-TV/WWOR-TV]], [[WPIX]], [[WNET|WATV/WNTA-TV]], '''[[WLNY-DT|WLIG/WLNY]]'''
*'''Norfolk/Portsmouth/Newport News:''' [[WGNT|WYAH-TV/WGNT]], [[WTVZ]], [[WVBT]], '''[[WSKY-TV]]'''
*'''Oklahoma City:''' [[KOKH-TV]], [[KAUT-TV]], [[KOCB-TV|KGMC]]
*'''Orlando/Daytona Beach:''' [[WOFL]], [[WKCF]], [[WRBW]], '''[[WRDQ]]'''
*'''Philadelphia:''' [[WPHL-TV]], [[WTXF-TV|WTAF-TV]], [[WKBS-TV (Philadelphia)|WKBS-TV]]/[[WGTW-TV]], [[WPSG|WGBS-TV]], [[WYBE|'''WYBE-TV''']], '''[[WFMZ-TV]]'''
*'''Phoenix:''' [[KPHO-TV]], [[KNXV-TV]], [[KUTP]], '''[[KTVK]]''', '''[[KAZT-TV|KUSK/KAZT-TV]]'''
*'''Pittsburgh:''' [[WPGH-TV]], [[WPMY|WPTT]], '''[[WBGN-LP]]'''
*'''Portland, Oregon:''' [[KPTV]], [[KPDX]], [[KRCW-TV|KUTF]]
*'''Providence/New Bedford:''' [[WNAC-TV]]
*'''Raleigh/Durham/Fayetteville:''' [[WLFL-TV]], [[WUVC-TV|WKFT]], [[WNCN-TV|WYED-TV]]
*'''Richmond, Virginia:''' [[WRLH-TV]], [[WUPV|WZXK]]
*'''Rochester, New York:''' [[WUHF]]
*'''Sacramento/Stockton:''' [[KTXL]], [[KMAX-TV|KMUV/KRBK]], [[KQCA|KSCH]], [[KBFT]]
*'''Saint Louis:''' [[KPLR-TV]], [[KDNL-TV]]
*'''Salt Lake City:''' [[KSTU]], '''[[KPNZ|KAZG/KPNZ]]''', [[KJZZ-TV]]
*'''San Antonio:''' [[KWEX-TV|KCOR-TV/KUAL-TV]], [[KABB]]
*'''San Diego:''' [[KNSD|KCST-TV]], [[XETV]], '''[[KUSI-TV]]''', [[KSWB-TV|KTTY]]
*'''San Francisco/Oakland/San Jose:''' [[KRON-TV]], [[KTVU]], [[KBCW (TV)|KBHK-TV]], '''[[KICU-TV|KGSC-TV/KICU-TV]]''', '''[[KBWB|KEMO/KTZO/KOFY-TV/KBWB]]''', '''[[KFTY]]''', '''[[KTVJ]]'''
*'''San Juan, Puerto Rico:''' '''[[WAPA-TV]]''', [[WLII]]
*'''Scranton/Wilkes-Barre:''' [[WSWB|WOLF-TV]]
*'''Seattle/Tacoma:''' [[KSTW|KTNT-TV/KSTW]], [[KCPQ|KMO-TV/KTVW/KCPQ]], '''[[KVOS-TV]]''', '''[[KONG-TV]]''', [[KMYQ|KTZZ]]
*'''Spokane, Washington:''' [[KAYU-TV]]
*'''Tampa/Saint Petersburg:''' [[WTOG-TV]], [[WTTA]], '''[[WMOR-TV]]''', [[WFTS]]
*'''Toledo, Ohio:''' [[WUPW]]
*'''Tucson, Arizona:''' [[KMSB-TV|KZAZ/KMSB-TV]]
*'''Washington, D.C.:''' [[WTTG]], [[WDCA|WDCA-TV]], [[WDCW|WFTY]], '''[[WJAL]]'''
*'''West Palm Beach:''' [[WFLX]], [[WTVX]], [[WHDT]]

== A list of notable Canadian independent stations, past and present ==
While independent stations were not as common in [[Canada]], there were several notable examples of such:

*'''Barrie, Ontario:''' [[CKVR-TV]]
*'''Calgary-Lethbridge:''' [[CICT-TV|CFAC/CICT]]-[[CISA-TV]]
*'''Edmonton:''' [[CITV-TV]]
*'''Halifax:''' [[CIHF-TV]]
*'''Hamilton:''' [[CHCH-TV]]
*'''London, Ontario:''' [[CFPL-TV]]
*'''Pembroke-Ottawa:''' [[CHRO-TV]]
*'''St. Johns, Nfld.:''' '''[[CJON-TV]]'''
*'''Toronto:''' [[CITY-TV]], '''[[CKXT-TV]]''', [[CFMT-TV]]
*'''Winnipeg:''' [[CKND-TV]], [[CHMI-TV]], [[CIIT-TV]]
*'''Wingham, Ontario:''' [[CKNX-TV]]
*'''Vancouver:''' [[CKVU-TV]], [[CIVT-TV]], [[CHNM-TV]], [[CHNU-TV]]

Since the mid-1990s, most independent television stations in Canada have merged into [[television system]]s, such as [[Citytv]] or [[E! (Canada)|E!]], or have become fully [[Owned-and-operated station|owned-and-operated]] network stations.

Toronto's CKXT is the only television station in Canada currently operating as an independent station in the American sense of the term. CJON in St. John's, while officially unaffiliated with a network, in practice airs a mix of programming sublicensed from Canada's commercial networks rather than purchasing broadcast rights independently. The independent stations that do still exist in Canada are mostly [[community channel (Canada)|community-oriented]] specialty stations, such as [[CFTV-TV]] in [[Leamington, Ontario]], [[CFTU-TV]] in [[Montreal]], and [[CHCT-TV]] in [[St. Andrews, New Brunswick]], which do not target a general entertainment audience.

==See also==
* [[List of independent television stations]]
* [[List of United States television networks]]

[[Category:Television terminology]]
[[Category:Independent television stations in the United States| ]]
[[Category:Independent television stations in Canada| ]]
[[Category:Television syndication]]

Revision as of 04:15, 13 October 2008

An independent station is television terminology used to describe a television station broadcasting in the United States or Canada that is not affiliated with any network.

Overview

1950s-1960s

During the 1950s and 1960s, independent stations filled their broadcast hours with movies, sports, cartoons, newsreels, filmed travelogues, and some locally-produced programs, including newscasts. Independents on the air during this period would sign on at times later than network-affiliated stations, some in the middle of the morning.

Another source of programming became available to independent stations by the mid-1960s: Reruns of network programs which, after completing their initial runs, were sold into syndication.

1970s

By the start of the 1970s, independent stations typically aired children's programming in the morning and afternoon, and movies and other adult-oriented shows (some stations aired paid religious programs) during middays. They counter-programmed local network stations' news programs with syndicated reruns—usually situation comedies (sitcoms) and hour-long dramas—in the early evening, and movies during prime time and late-night hours. In some areas, independents carried network programs that were not aired on a local affiliate.

In larger markets (such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles and others), independent stations benefited from a Federal Communications Commission ruling in effect from 1971 to 1995 barring network-affiliated stations within the top 50 television markets from [[airing off-network programs in the two hours preceding prime time. As a result, syndicated reruns became more readily available to independents.

1980s

In the 1980s, television syndicators began offering original, first-run programming such as Star Trek: The Next Generation, a trend that primarily benefited independent stations. Independents scheduled first-run programs during prime time and on weekends. Some stations in larger markets ventured into local news broadcasts, usually at 10:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific time zones, and 9:00 p.m. in the Central and Mountain time zones. Network stations aired their late newscasts an hour later.

More than 300 independent stations existed in the United States in the mid-1980s. Many belonged to the Association of Independent Television Stations, a group similar to the National Association of Broadcasters, and which lobbied the FCC on behalf of independents.

In the United States, many independent stations were commonly-owned. Companies that operated three or more independents included:

In 1986, several groups of independents, led by the Metromedia stations, formed the Fox Broadcasting Company or FOX, the fourth U.S. broadcast-television network. Many affiliates, however, still filled its broadcast hours with independent-like programming as FOX only programmed two hours a day, leaving over 20 hours daily for syndicated shows. FOX still only offers two hours of programming on weekdays and six hours a day on weekends.

1990s-2000s

True independent stations have become rare. In 1995, many remaining independent stations formed the WB and UPN networks, and other stations banded together for the Pax (now ION Television) network in 1998. Several stations affiliated with The WB and UPN became independent again when the networks merged to form the CW Television Network in September 2006. Some of the newly-independent stations subsequently found a new network home through My Network TV. Similar to FOX affiliates, however, many such stations still behave much like independents, as they program far more hours a day than an affiliate of the Big Three television networks.

Current independents follow a very different program format than their predecessors. While sitcoms are still popular, expanded newscasts and other syndicated product such as talk shows, courtroom shows, and paid programs such as infomercials and Christian religious programs have replaced children's shows and movies.

A list of notable U.S. independent stations, past and present

(a partial listing; bold text denotes a current independent station)

A list of notable Canadian independent stations, past and present

While independent stations were not as common in Canada, there were several notable examples of such:

Since the mid-1990s, most independent television stations in Canada have merged into television systems, such as Citytv or E!, or have become fully owned-and-operated network stations.

Toronto's CKXT is the only television station in Canada currently operating as an independent station in the American sense of the term. CJON in St. John's, while officially unaffiliated with a network, in practice airs a mix of programming sublicensed from Canada's commercial networks rather than purchasing broadcast rights independently. The independent stations that do still exist in Canada are mostly community-oriented specialty stations, such as CFTV-TV in Leamington, Ontario, CFTU-TV in Montreal, and CHCT-TV in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, which do not target a general entertainment audience.

See also

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