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{{short description|Genus of plants}}
{{Short description|Genus of plants}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
|name = Squirting cucumber
|name = Squirting cucumber
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|authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[A.Rich.]]<ref name=TPL_Ecballium/>
|authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[A.Rich.]]<ref name=TPL_Ecballium/>
|synonyms = ''Elaterium'' <small>[[Mill.]]</small>
|synonyms = ''Elaterium'' <small>[[Mill.]]</small>
|}}
}}


'''''Ecballium''''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Cucurbitaceae]] containing a single species, '''''Ecballium elaterium''''',<ref name=TPL_Ecballium>{{cite web |title=Search results for ''Ecballium''|website=The Plant List |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Ecballium |accessdate=1 March 2016 }}</ref> also called the '''squirting cucumber''' or '''exploding cucumber''' (but not to be confused with ''[[Cyclanthera brachystachya]]''). It gets its unusual name from the fact that, when ripe, it squirts a stream of [[mucilage|mucilaginous]] liquid containing its seeds, which can be seen with the naked eye. It is thus considered to have [[rapid plant movement]].
'''''Ecballium''''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Cucurbitaceae]] containing a single species, '''''Ecballium elaterium''''',<ref name=TPL_Ecballium>{{cite web |title=Search results for ''Ecballium''|website=The Plant List |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Ecballium |access-date=1 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="cabi">{{cite web |title=''Ecballium elaterium'' |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/113983 |publisher=CABI |access-date=18 March 2021 |date=21 November 2019}}</ref> also called the '''squirting cucumber''' or '''exploding cucumber''' (not the same plant as ''[[Cyclanthera brachystachya]]''). Its unusual common name derives from the ripe [[fruit]] squirting a stream of [[mucilage|mucilaginous]] liquid containing its [[seed]]s as a means of [[seed dispersal]], an example of [[rapid plant movement]].<ref name=forterre/>


==Distribution==
The tissue in the fruit of the ''Ecballium elaterium'' that surrounds the seed is thin walled. The pressure to release the seed is created by the increased concentration of glucoside and elaterinidin in low volumes of cytoplasm. This creates an osmotic pressure of up to 27 atms.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kozlowski|first=T.T.|title=Seed Biology: Importance, Development, and Germination, Volume 1|publisher=Academic Press|year=1972|isbn=9780323150675|location=|pages=175, 196–197}}</ref> The pressure building method also seems to rely on the [[Phloem|phloem sieve tubes]]. This also means that the shooting mechanism can be decreased in water stressed conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sheikholeslam|first=Shahla N.|last2=Currier|first2=Herbert B.|date=1977-03-01|title=Effect of Water Stress on Turgor Differences and 14C-Assimilate Movement in Phloem of Ecballium elaterium|url=http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/59/3/381|journal=Plant Physiology|language=en|volume=59|issue=3|pages=381–383|doi=10.1104/pp.59.3.381|issn=0032-0889|pmid=16659856|doi-access=free}}</ref>
⚫
''E. elaterium'' is native to Europe, northern Africa, and temperate areas of Asia, and is considered an [[invasive species]].<ref name=cabi/><ref name="grin">{{GRIN | ''Ecballium elaterium'' | 14775 | access-date = 21 December 2017}}</ref> It is grown as an ornamental plant elsewhere, and in some places it has [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]].<ref name="grin"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ECEL | title = ''Ecballium elaterium'' (L.) A. Rich | website = USDA PLANTS }}</ref>
⚫
[[File:Ecballium elaterium..jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Ecballium elaterium'']]


==Seed dispersal==
⚫
The fruit also utilizes [[Hygroscopy|hygroscopic movement]] in order to shoot the seeds out of the fruit. This method is done passively where the fruit changes its structure when it dies and tension is relieved in the dead tissue, causing movement. This movement can be due to coiling, bending, or twisting cells that increases its morphological shape as the cell dries. Because dying cells are mostly made up of cell wall, the shape will be determined by the shape of the cell wall. This is a method of self-dispersal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elbaum|first=Rivka|last2=Abraham|first2=Yael|date=2014-06-01|title=Insights into the microstructures of hygroscopic movement in plant seed dispersal|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168945214000661|journal=Plant Science|language=en|volume=223|pages=124–133|doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.03.014|issn=0168-9452}}</ref>
The tissue in the fruit of the ''Ecballium elaterium'' that surrounds the seeds is made of large, thin-walled cells facilitating the propulsive release of seeds by "squirting".<ref name="forterre">{{cite journal |last1=Forterre |first1=Y. |last2=Marmottant |first2=P. |last3=Quilliet |first3=C. |last4=Noblin |first4=X. |title=Physics of rapid movements in plants |journal=Europhysics News |date=January 2016 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |doi=10.1051/epn/2016104 |bibcode=2016ENews..47a..27F |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="koz">{{cite book |last1=Kozlowski |first1=T. T. |title=Seed Biology: Importance, Development, and Germination |date=2012 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-15067-5 |pages=175, 196–197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pf6e1ARRASAC&pg=PA175 }}</ref> Pressure to expel the seeds is created by the increased concentration of a [[glucoside]] called elaterinidin in the sap of the fruit tissue's cells, leading to a [[turgor pressure]] of up to 27 atms. The pressure builds up until its force detaches the fruit from the stalk. At the same time, the pericarp contracts and the fruit and seeds are ejected through the hole produced by detachment.<ref name=koz/>&nbsp;The pressure-building method may depend on the [[Phloem]] sieve tubes, indicating that the squirting mechanism can be decreased in water stressed conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sheikholeslam |first1=Shahla N. |last2=Currier |first2=Herbert B. |title=Effect of Water Stress on Turgor Differences and 14 C-Assimilate Movement in Phloem of Ecballium elaterium |journal=Plant Physiology |date=1 March 1977 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=381–383 |doi=10.1104/pp.59.3.381 |pmid=16659856 |pmc=542407 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


⚫
The fruit also uses [[Hygroscopy|hygroscopic movement]] and stored [[elastic energy]] to squirt the seeds out of the fruit.<ref name=forterre/> This method is done passively where the fruit changes its structure as it dehydrates and deteriorates, causing movement.<ref name=forterre/> This movement may be due to coiling, bending, or twisting cells to change its morphological shape as the cells dry.<ref name=forterre/> Because drying cells are mostly made up of cell wall, the shape is determined by the cell wall, providing a method for [[catapult]]ing of seeds to eject them out of the plant.<ref name=forterre/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elbaum |first1=Rivka |last2=Abraham |first2=Yael |title=Insights into the microstructures of hygroscopic movement in plant seed dispersal |journal=Plant Science |date=June 2014 |volume=223 |pages=124–133 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.03.014 |pmid=24767122 }}</ref>
Sudden movements in plant tissues are prone to different types of mechanical instabilities. In the case of ''E. elaterium,'' due to the relationship between the duration of movement and the size of the tissue, the plant tissue fractures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forterre|first=Y.|last2=Marmottant|first2=P.|last3=Quilliet|first3=C.|last4=Noblin|first4=X.|date=2016-01-01|title=Physics of rapid movements in plants|url=https://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/abs/2016/01/epn2016471p27/epn2016471p27.html|journal=Europhysics News|language=en|volume=47|issue=1|pages=27–30|doi=10.1051/epn/2016104|issn=0531-7479|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Effectiveness of the dispersal seems to be low as a study found that even though the ''E. elaterium'' could have sprayed its seed to the whole plot, the size and location of the infested areas remained relatively similar.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blank|first=Lior|last2=Birger|first2=Nitzan|last3=Eizenberg|first3=Hanan|date=November 2019|title=Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Ecballium elaterium in Almond Orchards|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/9/11/751|journal=Agronomy|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=751|doi=10.3390/agronomy9110751|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Sudden movements in plant tissues are prone to different types of mechanical instabilities.<ref name=forterre/> In the case of ''E. elaterium,'' due to the relationship between the duration of movement and the size of the tissue, the plant tissue fractures.<ref name=forterre/> Effectiveness of the dispersal seems to be low as a study found that even though the ''E. elaterium'' could have sprayed its seed to the whole plot, the size and location of the infested areas remained relatively similar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blank |first1=Lior |last2=Birger |first2=Nitzan |last3=Eizenberg |first3=Hanan |title=Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Ecballium elaterium in Almond Orchards |journal=Agronomy |date=13 November 2019 |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=751 |doi=10.3390/agronomy9110751 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==History in folk medicine==
⚫
It is native to Europe, northern Africa, and temperate areas of Asia.<ref name="grin">{{GRIN | ''Ecballium elaterium'' | 14775 | accessdate = 21 December 2017}}</ref> It is grown as an ornamental plant elsewhere, and in some places it has [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]].<ref name="grin"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ECEL | title = ''Ecballium elaterium'' (L.) A. Rich | website = USDA PLANTS }}</ref>

It is suspected to provide food for the [[caterpillar]]s of the [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Phtheochroa rugosana]]''.

This plant, and especially its fruit, is poisonous, containing [[cucurbitacin]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid= 11163940| year= 2001| last1= Attard| first1= E. G.| title= Ecballium elaterium: An in vitro source of cucurbitacins| journal= Fitoterapia| volume= 72| issue= 1| pages= 46–53| last2= Scicluna-Spiteri| first2= A| doi=10.1016/s0367-326x(00)00256-2}}</ref> In the ancient world it was considered to be an [[abortifacient]].<ref>Pliny Naturalis historia, Book XX, 4</ref>

⚫
[[File:Ecballium elaterium..jpg|thumb|right|225px|''Ecballium elaterium'']]

== Elaterium==
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|
{{expert needed|date=October 2009}}
{{more medical citations needed|section|date=November 2014}}
{{more medical citations needed|section|date=November 2014}}
}}


'''Elaterium''' is the plant extract used as a [[purgative]]. It is extracted from the juice of the fruit of ''Ecballium elaterium''. It was discovered by Dr [[J. D. M. Stirling]] in 1835.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002|date=July 2006|publisher=The Royal Society of Edinburgh|isbn=0-902-198-84-X|url=https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp2.pdf}}</ref>
''Elaterium'' is the [[cucurbitacin]] extract used in [[ancient history]] as a [[purgative]] in [[traditional medicine|folk medicine]]. Extracted from the juice of the fruit of ''E. elaterium'', elaterium was discovered by [[J. D. M. Stirling|Stirling]] in 1835.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelland |title=Opening Address, Session 1858–59 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh |date=1862 |volume=4 |pages=109–121 |doi=10.1017/S0370164600033848 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2169525 }}</ref> ''Elaterin'' is extracted from elaterium by [[chloroform]] and then precipitated by [[diethyl ether|ether]]. It has the formula C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>44</sub>O<sub>7</sub>. It forms colorless scales which have a bitter taste, with evidence as a [[poison]] when consumed through the nose or mouth.<ref name=kloutsos/> The ''British pharmacopeia'' contained a preparation, the ''Pulvis Elaterini Compositus''.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}


⚫
According to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition]], "[t]he action of this extract resembles that of the [[saline (medicine)|saline]] aperients, but is much more powerful. It is the most active hydragogue [[purgative]] known, 'causing also much depression and violent griping'. When injected subcutaneously, it is inert, as its action is entirely dependent upon its admixture with the [[bile]]. The drug is undoubtedly valuable in cases of [[Edema|dropsy]] and [[Bright's disease]], and also in cases of [[cerebral haemorrhage]], threatened or present. It must not be used except in urgent cases, and must invariably be employed with the utmost care, especially if the state of the heart be unsatisfactory."{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
To prepare the extract, the fruit is sliced lengthwise and slightly pressed, the greenish and slightly turbid juice obtained is strained and set aside, and the deposit of elaterium formed after a few hours is collected on a linen filter, rapidly drained, and dried on porous tiles at a gentle heat. Elaterium has been produced in light, thin, friable, flat or slightly incurved opaque cakes, of a greyish-green color, bitter taste and tea-like smell. The extract is soluble in [[ethanol]], but insoluble in water and [[diethyl ether]]. The official dose used to be {{frac|1|1|2}} grain, and the ''British pharmacopeia'' at the beginning of the 20th century directs that the drug is to contain from 20 to 25% of the active principle elaterinum or elaterin. A resin in the natural product aids its action.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}


In the 21st century, elaterium and its constituents are considered a poison, with several [[case report]]s of hospitalization, [[edema]] of the [[uvula]], and [[necrosis]] of the [[nasal mucosa]] resulting from nasal or oral consumption.<ref name="kloutsos">{{cite journal |last1=Kloutsos |first1=Georgios |last2=Balatsouras |first2=Dimitrios G. |last3=Kaberos |first3=Antonis C. |last4=Kandiloros |first4=Dimitrios |last5=Ferekidis |first5=Eleftherios |last6=Economou |first6=Constantinos |title=Upper Airway Edema Resulting From Use of Ecballium elaterium |journal=The Laryngoscope |date=September 2001 |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=1652–1655 |doi=10.1097/00005537-200109000-00030 |pmid=11568622 |s2cid=22186075 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="raikhlin">{{cite journal |last1=Raikhlin-Eisenkraft |first1=Bianca |last2=Bentur |first2=Yedidia |title=Ecbalium elaterium (Squirting Cucumber)—Remedy or Poison? |journal=Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology |date=January 2000 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=305–308 |doi=10.1081/clt-100100936 |pmid=10866331 |s2cid=24658851 }}</ref>
'''Elaterin''' is extracted from elaterium by [[chloroform]] and then precipitated by [[diethyl ether|ether]]. It has the formula C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>44</sub>O<sub>7</sub>. It forms colorless scales which have a bitter taste, but it is highly inadvisable to taste either this substance or elaterium. The ''British pharmacopeia'' contained a useful preparation, the ''Pulvis Elaterini Compositus'', which contains one part of the active principle in 40.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

⚫
According to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition]], "[t]he action of this extract resembles that of the [[saline (medicine)|saline]] aperients, but is much more powerful. It is the most active hydragogue [[purgative]] known, 'causing also much depression and violent griping'. When injected subcutaneously it is inert, as its action is entirely dependent upon its admixture with the [[bile]]. The drug is undoubtedly valuable in cases of [[Edema|dropsy]] and [[Bright's disease]], and also in cases of [[cerebral haemorrhage]], threatened or present. It must not be used except in urgent cases, and must invariably be employed with the utmost care, especially if the state of the heart be unsatisfactory."{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Some of these contemporaneous statements are now outdated.


==References==
==References==
⚫
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Elaterium|volume=9|page=160}}
{{EB1911|wstitle=Elaterium|volume=9|page=160}}


==External links==
==External links==
⚫
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.maltawildplants.com/CUCU/Ecballium_elaterium.php Comprehensive profile for ''Ecballium elaterium'']
* [http://www.maltawildplants.com/CUCU/Ecballium_elaterium.php Comprehensive profile for ''Ecballium elaterium'']


{{Taxonbar|from1=Q157877|from2=Q3018301}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q3018301|from2=Q157877}}


[[Category:Cucurbitoideae]]
[[Category:Cucurbitoideae]]
[[Category:Abortifacients]]
[[Category:Abortifacients]]
[[Category:Monotypic Cucurbitaceae genera]]
[[Category:Monotypic Cucurbitaceae genera]]
[[Category:Poisonous plants]]
[[Category:Laxatives]]
[[Category:Laxatives]]

Revision as of 23:52, 31 December 2023

Squirting cucumber
A fruit of the squirting cucumber
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Cucurbitales
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Subfamily: Cucurbitoideae
Tribe: Bryonieae
Genus: Ecballium
A.Rich.[1]
Species:
E. elaterium
Binomial name
Ecballium elaterium
Synonyms

Elaterium Mill.

Ecballium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cucurbitaceae containing a single species, Ecballium elaterium,[1][2] also called the squirting cucumber or exploding cucumber (not the same plant as Cyclanthera brachystachya). Its unusual common name derives from the ripe fruit squirting a stream of mucilaginous liquid containing its seeds as a means of seed dispersal, an example of rapid plant movement.[3]

Distribution

E. elaterium is native to Europe, northern Africa, and temperate areas of Asia, and is considered an invasive species.[2][4] It is grown as an ornamental plant elsewhere, and in some places it has naturalized.[4][5]

Ecballium elaterium

Seed dispersal

The tissue in the fruit of the Ecballium elaterium that surrounds the seeds is made of large, thin-walled cells facilitating the propulsive release of seeds by "squirting".[3][6] Pressure to expel the seeds is created by the increased concentration of a glucoside called elaterinidin in the sap of the fruit tissue's cells, leading to a turgor pressure of up to 27 atms. The pressure builds up until its force detaches the fruit from the stalk. At the same time, the pericarp contracts and the fruit and seeds are ejected through the hole produced by detachment.[6] The pressure-building method may depend on the Phloem sieve tubes, indicating that the squirting mechanism can be decreased in water stressed conditions.[7]

The fruit also uses hygroscopic movement and stored elastic energy to squirt the seeds out of the fruit.[3] This method is done passively where the fruit changes its structure as it dehydrates and deteriorates, causing movement.[3] This movement may be due to coiling, bending, or twisting cells to change its morphological shape as the cells dry.[3] Because drying cells are mostly made up of cell wall, the shape is determined by the cell wall, providing a method for catapulting of seeds to eject them out of the plant.[3][8]

Sudden movements in plant tissues are prone to different types of mechanical instabilities.[3] In the case of E. elaterium, due to the relationship between the duration of movement and the size of the tissue, the plant tissue fractures.[3] Effectiveness of the dispersal seems to be low as a study found that even though the E. elaterium could have sprayed its seed to the whole plot, the size and location of the infested areas remained relatively similar.[9]

History in folk medicine

Elaterium is the cucurbitacin extract used in ancient history as a purgative in folk medicine. Extracted from the juice of the fruit of E. elaterium, elaterium was discovered by Stirling in 1835.[10] Elaterin is extracted from elaterium by chloroform and then precipitated by ether. It has the formula C32H44O7. It forms colorless scales which have a bitter taste, with evidence as a poison when consumed through the nose or mouth.[11] The British pharmacopeia contained a preparation, the Pulvis Elaterini Compositus.[12]

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, "[t]he action of this extract resembles that of the saline aperients, but is much more powerful. It is the most active hydragogue purgative known, 'causing also much depression and violent griping'. When injected subcutaneously, it is inert, as its action is entirely dependent upon its admixture with the bile. The drug is undoubtedly valuable in cases of dropsy and Bright's disease, and also in cases of cerebral haemorrhage, threatened or present. It must not be used except in urgent cases, and must invariably be employed with the utmost care, especially if the state of the heart be unsatisfactory."[12]

In the 21st century, elaterium and its constituents are considered a poison, with several case reports of hospitalization, edema of the uvula, and necrosis of the nasal mucosa resulting from nasal or oral consumption.[11][13]

References

  1. ^ a b c "Search results for Ecballium". The Plant List. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  2. ^ a b "Ecballium elaterium". CABI. 21 November 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Forterre, Y.; Marmottant, P.; Quilliet, C.; Noblin, X. (January 2016). "Physics of rapid movements in plants". Europhysics News. 47 (1): 27–30. Bibcode:2016ENews..47a..27F. doi:10.1051/epn/2016104.
  4. ^ a b "Ecballium elaterium". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
  5. ^ "Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich". USDA PLANTS.
  6. ^ a b Kozlowski, T. T. (2012). Seed Biology: Importance, Development, and Germination. Elsevier. pp. 175, 196–197. ISBN 978-0-323-15067-5.
  7. ^ Sheikholeslam, Shahla N.; Currier, Herbert B. (1 March 1977). "Effect of Water Stress on Turgor Differences and 14 C-Assimilate Movement in Phloem of Ecballium elaterium". Plant Physiology. 59 (3): 381–383. doi:10.1104/pp.59.3.381. PMC 542407. PMID 16659856.
  8. ^ Elbaum, Rivka; Abraham, Yael (June 2014). "Insights into the microstructures of hygroscopic movement in plant seed dispersal". Plant Science. 223: 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.03.014. PMID 24767122.
  9. ^ Blank, Lior; Birger, Nitzan; Eizenberg, Hanan (13 November 2019). "Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Ecballium elaterium in Almond Orchards". Agronomy. 9 (11): 751. doi:10.3390/agronomy9110751.
  10. ^ Kelland (1862). "Opening Address, Session 1858–59". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 4: 109–121. doi:10.1017/S0370164600033848.
  11. ^ a b Kloutsos, Georgios; Balatsouras, Dimitrios G.; Kaberos, Antonis C.; Kandiloros, Dimitrios; Ferekidis, Eleftherios; Economou, Constantinos (September 2001). "Upper Airway Edema Resulting From Use of Ecballium elaterium". The Laryngoscope. 111 (9): 1652–1655. doi:10.1097/00005537-200109000-00030. PMID 11568622. S2CID 22186075.
  12. ^ a b Chisholm 1911.
  13. ^ Raikhlin-Eisenkraft, Bianca; Bentur, Yedidia (January 2000). "Ecbalium elaterium (Squirting Cucumber)—Remedy or Poison?". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 38 (3): 305–308. doi:10.1081/clt-100100936. PMID 10866331. S2CID 24658851.

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Elaterium". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 160.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ecballium elaterium.
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