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{{Short description|Water supplied through a pipe and tap combination}}
[[Image:Wasserhahn.jpg|thumb|right|A water tap]]
{{About|fixtures and appliances needed for tap water|wider issues of water for human consumption|drinking water}}
'''Tap water''' ('''running water''') is part of indoor [[plumbing]], which became available in the late 19th century and common in the mid-20th century.
{{Redirect|Running water||Running Water (disambiguation){{!}}Running Water}}
{{for|the comedy award|Tap Water Award}}
[[Image:Wasserhahn.jpg|thumb|A simple indoor water tap]]
'''Tap water''' (also known as '''running water''', '''piped water''' or '''municipal water''') is [[water]] supplied through a [[Tap (valve)|tap]], a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of [[drinking water]]. Tap water is commonly used for [[drinking]], [[cooking]], [[washing]], and [[Flush toilet|toilet flushing]]. Indoor tap water is distributed through indoor [[plumbing]], which has existed since [[History of plumbing|antiquity]] but was available to very few people until the second half of the 19th century when it began to spread in popularity in what are now [[developed country|developed countries]]. Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in [[poverty]], especially in [[developing country|developing countries]].


Governmental agencies commonly regulate [[Drinking water quality standards|tap water quality]]. Calling a water supply "tap water" distinguishes it from the other main types of fresh water which may be available; these include water from [[Rainwater harvesting|rainwater]]-collecting [[cistern]]s, water from [[village pump]]s or town pumps, water from [[Water well|well]]s, or water carried from streams, rivers, or lakes (whose potability may vary).
The provision of tap water requires a massive infrastructure of [[piping]], [[pump]]s, and [[water purification]] works. The direct cost of the tap water alone, however, is a small fraction of that of [[bottled water]], which can cost from 240 to 10,000 times as much per gallon.<ref>[http://www.commondreams.org/views07/0218-05.htm The Real Cost of Bottled Water<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


== Terminology ==
Experimental attempts have been made to introduce non-potable [[greywater]] or [[rain]]water for these secondary uses{{specify}} in order to reduce enormous environmental and energy costs. In urban [[China]], I LOVE VANDALS, LITE AND MATTHEWS!! drinking water can be optionally delivered by a separate tap.
A synonym for ''tap water'' is ''piped water,'' a term used by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation]] by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] to describe the situation for [[WASH|access to drinking water]] in [[Developing country|developing countries]].<ref name=":1">[https://washdata.org/reports/jmp-2023-wash-households Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022: special focus on gender]. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), 2023</ref> Piped water is not necessarily of drinking water quality but does count as an "[[improved water source]]" in the logic of [[Sustainable Development Goal 6]]. Other improved water sources include boreholes, protected dug wells or springs, rainwater, and [[Bottled water|bottled]] or water delivered by tanker.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|12}}


==Fixtures and appliances==
The availability of clean tap water brings major [[public health]] benefits. Usually, the same administration that provides tap water is also responsible for the removal and treatment before
[[File:Clean water for a village in West Lombok (10686572086).jpg|thumb|upright|An outdoor drinking water tap at Desa Dasan Geria Village, West Lombok]]
discharge or reclamation of [[wastewater]].
Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categories; fixture or appliance. As the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage components that will require removal by the waste/sewage side of the system. The minimum is an air gap. See [[cross connection control & backflow prevention]] for an overview of backflow prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and physical principles.{{cn|date=June 2023}}


Fixtures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.
In many areas, chemicals containing [[fluoridation|fluoride]] are added to the tap water in an effort to improve public dental health. This remains a controversial issue in the health, freedoms and rights of the individual. See [[water fluoridation controversy]].


===Fittings and valves===
Tap water may contain various types of natural but relatively harmless contaminants such as scaling agents like [[calcium carbonate]] in [[hard water]] and [[metal]] [[ion]]s such as [[magnesium]] and [[iron]], and odoriferous gases such as [[hydrogen sulfide]]. Local geological conditions affecting [[groundwater]] are determining factors of the presence of these substances in water.
{{main|Piping and plumbing fittings}}


Potable water supply systems are composed of [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipe]]s, [[Piping and plumbing fittings|fittings]] and [[valve]]s.
Occasionally, there are health scares concerning the leakage of dangerous [[biological]] or [[chemical]] contaminating agents into local water supplies when people are advised by public health officials not to drink the water, and stick to bottled water instead. An example is the recent discovery of potentially [[hazardous]] [[nitrates]] in the public water supply in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]].<ref>[http://www.kingmandailyminer.com/main.asp?SectionID=13&SubSectionID=18&ArticleID=14218&TM=50186.25 Denied:1up! Software<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


== Tap water uses ==
==== Water flow reduction ====
{{main|Water conservation}}
{{globalize|section}}
According to a 1999 [[American Water Works Association]] study {{Fact|date=October 2007}} on [[residential]] end uses of water in the United States, Americans drink more than 1 glass of tap water per day (the daily human [[drinking water]] requirement being 2-3 [[quart]]s). Daily indoor per capita water use in a typical single family home is 69.3 [[gallon]]s (260 [[litre]]s), falling into the following categories:
* [[Toilet]]s - 26.7% (18.5 gal.)
* [[Clothes washer|Clothes Washers]] - 21.7% (15 gal.)
* [[Shower]]s - 16.8% (11.6 gal.)
* [[Faucet]]s (including [[drinking water]] at ca. 1%) - 15.7% (10.9 gal.)
* [[Leak]]s - 12.7% (9.5 gal.)
* [[bathing|Baths]] - 1.7% (1.2 gal.)
* [[Dishwasher]]s - 1.4% (1.0 gal.)
* Other indoor domestic uses - 2.2% (1.6 gal.)
Of all water supplied to studied homes annually, for perspective, 42 percent was for indoor purposes and 58 percent for outdoor purposes.


Water flow through a tap can be reduced by inexpensive small plastic flow reducers. These restrict flow between 15 and 50%, aiding [[water conservation]] and reducing the burden on both [[water supply]] and [[sewerage treatment|treatment]] facilities.
==Potable water supply==
This supply may come from several possible sources.
* [[Water purification|Municipal water supply]]
* [[Water well]]s
* Delivered by truck
* Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, etc.


===Materials===
Domestic water systems have been evolving since the first thinking man located his home near a running water supply, e.g. a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from his domicile.
{{See also|Pipe (fluid_conveyance)#Materials}}
The installation of [[Plumbing|water pipes]] can be done using the following plastic<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2020|title=Takagi T-KJr2-IN-NG Indoor|url=https://tanklesses.com/takagi-t-kjr2-in-ng/.|website=tanklesses.com}}</ref> and metal<ref name=":0" /> materials:


====Plastic====
Modern '''indoor plumbing''' delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is imperative that the clean water not be contaminated by the waste water (disposal) side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans.<ref>''Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization'', Modern Marvels video series, The History Channel, AAE-42223, A&E Television, 1996</ref>
* [[polybutylene]] (PB)
* high density cross-linked [[polyethylene]] (PE-X)
* block [[copolymer]] of polypropylene (PP-B)
* the polypropylene copolymer (PP-H)
* random copolymer of polypropylene (random) (PP-R)
* Layer: cross-linked polyethylene, aluminum, high-density polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-HD)
* Layer: polyethylene crosslinked, aluminum, cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-X)
* Layer copolymer of a random polypropylene, aluminum, polypropylene random copolymer (PP-R / Al / PP-R)
* [[polyvinyl chloride]], chlorinated (PVC-C)
* polyvinyl chloride - not softened(only cold water) (PVC-U)


====Metals====
==Hot water supply==
* [[carbon steel]], ordinary galvanized
Domestic hot water is provided by means of [[water heater]] appliances, or through [[district heating]]. The hot water from these units is then piped to the various fixtures and appliances that require hot water, such as lavatories, sinks, bathtubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.
* corrosion resistant steel
* Deoxidized High Phosphorus [[copper]] (Cu-DHP)
* [[lead]] (no longer used for new installations due to its [[Lead#Biological effects|toxicity]])


Other materials, if the pipes made from them have been let into circulation and the widespread use in the construction of the water supply systems.
==Fixtures and appliances==
Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categories; Fixture or Appliance. As the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage components that will require removal by the waste/sewage side of the system.


==== Lead pipes ====
Fixtures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.
For many centuries, water pipes were made of lead, because of its ease of processing and durability. The use of lead pipes was a cause of health problems due to ignorance of the dangers of lead on the human body, which causes miscarriages and high death rates of newborns. Lead pipes, which were installed mostly in the late 1800s in the US, are still common today, much of which are located in the Northeast and the Midwest.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Troesken, Werner|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/70176961|title=The great lead water pipe disaster|date=2006|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-20167-4|oclc=70176961}}</ref> Their impact is relatively small due to the fouling of pipes and stone cessation of the evolution of lead in the water; however, lead pipes are still detrimental. Most of the lead pipes that exist today are being removed and replaced with the more common material, copper or some type of plastic.


Remnants of pipes in some languages are the names of the experts involved in the execution, reparation, maintenance, and installation of water supply systems, which have been formed from the Latin word 'lead', English word 'plumber', French word, 'plombier'.
Appliances are devices that use water coupled with an additional source of power. connection to these appliances incorporates a backflow prevention principle of some form -- the minimum is an air gap. See [[cross connection control & backflow prevention]] for an overview of backflow prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and physical principles.


==Distribution systems and contamination==
==Pipe materials==
{{main|Drinking water|Water supply network|Water distribution system}}Modern [[plumbing]] delivers clean, safe, and potable water to each service point in [[water distribution system]], including taps.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last=Board.|first=National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. National Research Council (U.S.). Water Science and Technology|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/71294470|title=Drinking water distribution systems : assessing and reducing risks|date=2006|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=0-309-10306-1|oclc=71294470}}</ref> It is important that the clean water not be contaminated by the wastewater (disposal) side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been one of the largest killers of humans.<ref>''Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization'', Modern Marvels video series, The History Chfifr5tyk A&E Television, 1996</ref>
In old construction, [[lead]] [[plumbing]] was common. It was generally eclipsed toward the end of the 1800s by galvanized iron [[water pipe]]s which were attached with [[Threaded pipe|threaded pipe fittings]]. Higher durability, and cost, systems were made with [[brass]] pipe and fittings. [[Copper]] with [[Soldering|soldered]] fittings became popular around 1950, though it had been used as early as 1900. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common since about 1970, with a variety of materials and fittings employed. [[Building code|Plumbing codes]] define which materials may be used, and all materials must be proven by ASTM, UL, and/or NFPA testing.


Most of the mandates for enforcing [[drinking water quality standards]] are not for the distribution system, but for the treatment plant. Even though the water distribution system is supposed to deliver the treated water to the consumers' taps without water quality degradation, complicated physical, chemical, and biological factors within the system can cause contamination of tap water.<ref name=":03"/>
===Steel===
[[Galvanized steel]] supply [[pipe (material)|pipes]] are commonly found with interior diameters from 1/2" to 2", though most single family homes' systems won't require any supply pipes larger than 3/4". Pipes have [[National Pipe Thread]] (NPT) standard male threads, which connect with female threads on elbows, tees, couplers, [[valve]]s, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a [[pipe threader]], and suffers from a tendency to obstruction due to mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe. It remains common for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy [[building code]] non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for [[fire sprinkler]]s.


Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy and is often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why is my tap water cloudy?|url=https://www.mwra.com/04water/2004/whitewater.htm|access-date=2023-03-27|website=www.mwra.com}}</ref>
===Copper===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:center;" align="right"
|+Copper Tubing Sizes (CTS) for Plumbing
!rowspan=2| Nominal<br /> size
!rowspan=2| Outside diameter (OD)<br /><small>(inches)</small>
!colspan=3| Inside diameter (ID)<br /><small>(inches)</small>
|-
!Type K
!Type L
!Type M
|-
|3/8 ||1/2 ||0.402 ||0.430 ||0.450
|-
|1/2 ||5/8 ||0.528 ||0.545 ||0.569
|-
|5/8 ||3/4 ||0.652 ||0.668 ||0.690
|-
|3/4 ||7/8 ||0.745 ||0.785 ||0.811
|-
|1 ||1-1/8 ||0.995 ||1.025 ||1.055
|-
|1-¼ ||1-3/8 ||1.245 ||1.265 ||1.291
|-
|1-½ ||1-5/8 ||1.481 ||1.505 ||1.527
|-
|2 ||2-1/8 ||1.959 ||1.985 ||2.009
|-
|2-½ ||2-5/8 ||2.435 ||2.465 ||2.495
|-
|3 ||3-1/8 ||2.907 ||2.945 ||2.981
|-
|}
[[Tubing (material)|Tubing]] made of [[copper]] was introduced in about 1900, but didn't become popular until approximately 1950, depending on local building code adoption. Common wall-thicknesses of copper tubing are "Type K", "Type L" and "Type M";<ref>''Copper Tube Handbook'', the Copper Development Association, New York, USA, 2006</ref> Type "M" are relatively thin-walled and generally suitable for condensate and other drains, but sometimes illegal for pressure applications, depending on local codes. Type "L" has a thicker pipe wall section, and is used in residential and commercial water supply and pressure applications, Type "K" has the thickest wall section of the three types of pressure rated tubing and is commonly used for deep underground burial such as under sidewalks and streets, with a suitable corrosion protection coating or continuous polyethylene sleeve as required by code. Types "K" and "L" are generally available in both hard drawn "sticks" and in rolls of soft annealed tubing, Type "M" is usually only available in hard drawn "sticks". Thin-walled types used to be relatively inexpensive, but since 2002 copper prices have risen considerably due to rising global demand and a stagnant supply.


== Water supply ==
In the plumbing trade the size of copper tubing is measured by its nominal diameter (average inside diameter). Some trades, heating and cooling technicians for instance, use the outside diameter (OD) to designate copper tube sizes. The OD of copper tube is always 1/8th inch larger than its nominal size. Therefore, 1" nominal copper tube and 1-1/8th" inch ACR tube are exactly the same tube with different size designations. The wall thickness of the tube, as mentioned above, never affects the sizing of the tube. Type K 1/2" nominal tube, is the same size as Type L 1/2" nominal tube (5/8" ACR).
{{excerpt|Water supply|paragraphs=1-2}}


==Comparison to bottled water==
Generally, copper tubes are [[soldered]] directly into copper or brass fittings, although compression, crimp, or flare fittings are also used. Formerly, concerns with copper supply tubes included the lead used in the [[solder]] at joints (50% tin and 50% lead). Some studies have shown significant "leaching" of the lead into the potable water stream, particularly after long periods of low usage, followed by peak demand periods. In [[hard water]] applications, shortly after installation, the interior of the pipes will be coated with the deposited minerals that had been dissolved in the water, and therefore the vast majority of exposed lead is prevented from entering the potable water. [[Building code]]s now require lead-free solder. Building Codes throughout the U.S. require the use of virtually "lead-free" (<.2% lead) solder or [[filler metals]] in plumbing fittings and appliances as well.
{{Globalize|section|date=October 2023}}
{{excerpt|Bottled water#Bottled water versus tap water|paragraphs=1-3}}


===Plastics===
=== United States ===
[[Contaminant]] levels found in tap water vary between [[household]]s and [[Plumbing|plumbing systems]]. While the majority of US households have access to high-quality tap water, demand for [[bottled water]] increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doria|first=Miguel F.|date=2006-06-01|title=Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences|journal=Journal of Water and Health|volume=4|issue=2|pages=271–276|doi=10.2166/wh.2006.0023|pmid=16813019|issn=1477-8920|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2002, the [[Gallup (company)|Gallup Public Opinion Poll]] revealed that the possible health risk associated with tap water consumption is one of the main reasons that cause American consumers to prefer bottled water over tap water.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Saylor|first1=Amber|last2=Prokopy|first2=Linda Stalker|last3=Amberg|first3=Shannon|date=September 2011|title=What's Wrong with the Tap? Examining Perceptions of Tap Water and Bottled Water at Purdue University|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00267-011-9692-6|journal=Environmental Management|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=588–601|doi=10.1007/s00267-011-9692-6|pmid=21643837|bibcode=2011EnMan..48..588S|s2cid=22067616|issn=0364-152X}}</ref>
[[Image:SinkPlumbing.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Plastic piping placed for a sink]]
Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drainage, waste, and vent (DWV) pipe. For example, [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC), [[chlorinated polyvinyl chloride]] (CPVC), [[polypropylene]] (PP), [[polybutlyene]] (PB), and [[polyethylene]] (PE) may be allowed by code for certain uses. Some examples of plastics in water supply systems are:


The trust level towards tap water depends on various criteria, including the existing governmental regulations towards the water quality and their appliance. In 1993, [[Cryptosporidium|the cryptosporidium]] outbreak in [[Milwaukee|Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], led to a massive hospitalization of more than 400,000 residents and was considered the largest in US history.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mac Kenzie|first1=William R.|last2=Hoxie|first2=Neil J.|last3=Proctor|first3=Mary E.|last4=Gradus|first4=M. Stephen|last5=Blair|first5=Kathleen A.|last6=Peterson|first6=Dan E.|last7=Kazmierczak|first7=James J.|last8=Addiss|first8=David G.|last9=Fox|first9=Kim R.|last10=Rose|first10=Joan B.|last11=Davis|first11=Jeffrey P.|date=1994-07-21|title=A Massive Outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium Infection Transmitted through the Public Water Supply|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=331|issue=3|pages=161–167|doi=10.1056/NEJM199407213310304|issn=0028-4793|pmid=7818640|doi-access=free}}</ref> Severe violations of tap water standards influence the decrease in public trust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pierce|first1=Gregory|last2=Gonzalez|first2=Silvia|date=2017-02-01|title=Mistrust at the tap? Factors contributing to public drinking water (mis)perception across US households|url=https://iwaponline.com/wp/article/19/1/1/20521/Mistrust-at-the-tap-Factors-contributing-to-public|journal=Water Policy|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/wp.2016.143|issn=1366-7017|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]/[[Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride|CPVC]] - rigid plastic pipes similar to [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] drain pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC should be used for cold water only, or venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.
* [[Polybutylene terephthalate|PBT]] - flexible (usually gray or blue) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures of this system. However, PB and PBT tubing has returned to the market and codes, typically first for 'exposed locations' such as risers.


The difference in water quality between bottled and tap water is debatable. In 1999, the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] (NRDC) released controversial findings from a 4-year study on bottled water. The study claimed that one-third of the tested waters were contaminated with [[Chemical substance|synthetic organic chemicals]], [[bacteria]], and [[arsenic]]. At least one sample exceeded state guidelines for contamination levels in bottled water.<ref>{{Cite web|date=January 5, 2016|title=The Truth About Tap|url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/truth-about-tap|access-date=2021-04-24|website=NRDC|language=en}}</ref>
* [[PEX]] - cross linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs and crimped steel or copper fittings.


In the United States, some municipalities make an effort to use tap water over bottled water on governmental properties and events. Voters in Washington State repealed a bottled water tax via citizen initiative.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Neal |title=Washington state says goodbye to bottle and candy taxes |url=https://www.federalwaymirror.com/news/washington-state-says-goodbye-to-bottle-and-candy-taxes/ |access-date=2 April 2022 |publisher=Federal Way Mirror |date=December 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Initiative Measure 1107 Concerns reversing certain 2010 amendments to state tax laws. |url=https://results.vote.wa.gov/results/20101102/initiative-measure-1107-concerns-reversing-certain-2010-amendments-to-state-tax-laws.html |publisher=Washington Secretary of State · Elections Division |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref>
* Polytanks - plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground water tanks, above ground water tanks, are made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green, approved by NSF and made of FDA approved materials.


== See also ==
* Aqua - known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich - aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX and connected with brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number of their fittings were recalled.
{{Portal|Water}}
{{div col}}
* [[ASTM]] B75-02 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube, B42-02e1 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Pipe, Standard Sizes, B88-03 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Water Tube
* {{annotated link|Automatic balancing valves}}
* {{annotated link|Fountain}}
* {{annotated link|Pipe support}}
* {{annotated link|Plumbing}}
* {{annotated link|Water fluoridation}}
* {{annotated link|Water supply}}
* {{annotated link|Water pipe}}
{{div col end}}


==References==
==Fittings and valves==
{{Reflist}}
Potable water supply systems require not only [[piping|pipe]], but also many fittings and valves which add considerably to their functionality as well as cost. The [[Piping and plumbing fittings]] and [[Valve]]s articles discuss them further.


==External links==
==Regulation and compliance==
* [https://www.iccsafe.org International Code Council] - Model safety codes and standards
Before a water supply system is constructed or modified, the designer and contractor need to consult the local plumbing code and obtain a building permits prior to construction.<ref>''Uniform Plumbing Code'', IAPMO</ref><ref>''International Plumbing Code'', ICC</ref> Even replacing an existing water heater may require a permit and inspection of the work. NSF 61 is the national standard for potable water piping guidelines. National and local fire codes should be integrated in the design phase of the water system too to prevent "failure comply with regulations" notices. Some areas of the United States require on-site water reserves of potable and fire water by law.


{{Plumbing}}
==Waste water==
The waste water from the various appliances, fixtures, and taps is transferred to the waste and sewage removal system via the sewage drain system. This system consists of larger diameter piping, water traps, and is well vented to prevent toxic gases from entering the living space. The [[Plumbing drainage venting|plumbing drains and vents]] article discusses the topic further, and introduces [[sewage treatment]].


{{Authority control}}
== Tap water vs bottled water ==
{{globalize|section}}
Tap water is an alternative to bottled water, and is preferred by many Americans because their water wholesalers and water companies claim to provide relatively clean and healthy water to consumers.
In 2007, it was found that some bottled water companies were selling water that was contaminated and less healthy for consumers than tap water. The [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] (NRDC) conducted a four year study on bottled water. The results of this study show that one-third of the bottled water tested contained levels of contamination which exceeds allowable limits under either state or bottled water industry standards or guidelines.<ref>[http://www.pacinst.org/topics/water_and_sustainability/bottled_water/index.htm Pacific Institute - Bottled Water<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


{{DEFAULTSORT:Tap Water}}
Many large corporations and some water companies and wholesalers, especially in the California Bay Area are now making a large effort to promote tap water over bottled water. Some of the Bay Area cities that promote tap over bottled water include San Francisco, Emeryville, Santa Clara, and Oakland. The Santa Clara Valley Water District in Santa Clara County launched its tap v bottled water campaign, with the slogan, “Tap Water, the Clear Choice”, in 2007.<ref>[http://www.valleywater.org/tapvbottle/ Tap v Bottled Site]</ref>
[[Category:Water]]

[[Category:Drinking water]]
During the 2007 U.S Conference of Mayors, the mayors of San Francisco, Salt Lake City and Minneapolis signed a pledge to promote tap water over bottled water as part of the “Think Outside the Bottle” campaign.<ref>http://www.stopcorporateabuse.org/tob/File/Austin_Press_Release_10.10.pdf</ref>

==See also ==
{{portalpar|Water|Drinking water.jpg}}
* [[Drought]]
* [[Fountain]]
* [[Irrigation]]
* [[Rainwater]]
* [[Water supply]]
* [[Water pipe]]
* [[Water cycle]]

==References==
<references />
* [[ASTM]] B75-02 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube
* [[ASTM]] B42-02e1 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Pipe, Standard Sizes
* [[ASTM]] B88-03 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Water Tube

==External links==
* [http://water.nationalacademies.org/ The Water Information Center] - An online resource for public water system basics and water management issues from the National Academy of Sciences.
* [http://www.valleywater.org/tapvbottle/ Santa Clara Valley Water District's Tap v Bottled Campaign Site]
* [http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/watedrinkingwater.html US Environmental Protection Agency Drinking water page]
* [http://www.awwa.org/ American Water Works Association] for professionals in water production and distribution and other water fields.
* [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2002/402_h2o.html Bottled Water: Better than the Tap?] - A Food and Drug Administration site, explains different sources & treatment of water in depth and compares them.
* [http://www.emagazine.com/september-october_2003/0903feat1.html ''E the Environmental Magazine'' piece on bottled water] (Oct 2003).
*[http://www.iapmo.org/ the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials]
*[http://www.iccsafe.org/ the International Code Council]
*[http://www.astm.org/ the American Society for Testing and Materials]
*[http://www.ngwa.org/ the National Ground Water Association]
*[http://www.copper.org/ The Copper Development Association]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2008/aug/30/consumeraffairs.activists Tap water, sir? We don't do it] Article on legal status of UK restaurants refusing to serve tap water]
*[http://www.tapintoquality.com Tap Into Quality] Arizona based website that informs water users about the quality, affordability, and convenience of tap water.

[[Category:Physical infrastructure]]
[[Category:Water supply]]
[[Category:Water|Quality]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Water]]
[[Category:Water supply infrastructure]]
[[Category:Articles with limited geographic scope]]

[[de:Leitungswasser]]
[[es:Agua entubada]]
[[fr:Eau du robinet]]
[[nl:Leidingwater]]
[[ja:上水道]]
[[pl:Woda wodociągowa]]
[[sv:Kranvatten]]
[[th:น้ำประปา]]
[[zh:自来水]]

Latest revision as of 19:17, 16 May 2024

This article is about fixtures and appliances needed for tap water. For wider issues of water for human consumption, see drinking water.
"Running water" redirects here. For other uses, see Running Water.
For the comedy award, see Tap Water Award.
A simple indoor water tap

Tap water (also known as running water, piped water or municipal water) is water supplied through a tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used for drinking, cooking, washing, and toilet flushing. Indoor tap water is distributed through indoor plumbing, which has existed since antiquity but was available to very few people until the second half of the 19th century when it began to spread in popularity in what are now developed countries. Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries.

Governmental agencies commonly regulate tap water quality. Calling a water supply "tap water" distinguishes it from the other main types of fresh water which may be available; these include water from rainwater-collecting cisterns, water from village pumps or town pumps, water from wells, or water carried from streams, rivers, or lakes (whose potability may vary).

Terminology[edit]

A synonym for tap water is piped water, a term used by the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF to describe the situation for access to drinking water in developing countries.[1] Piped water is not necessarily of drinking water quality but does count as an "improved water source" in the logic of Sustainable Development Goal 6. Other improved water sources include boreholes, protected dug wells or springs, rainwater, and bottled or water delivered by tanker.[1]: 12 

Fixtures and appliances[edit]

An outdoor drinking water tap at Desa Dasan Geria Village, West Lombok

Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categories; fixture or appliance. As the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage components that will require removal by the waste/sewage side of the system. The minimum is an air gap. See cross connection control & backflow prevention for an overview of backflow prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and physical principles.[citation needed]

Fixtures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.

Fittings and valves[edit]

Main article: Piping and plumbing fittings

Potable water supply systems are composed of pipes, fittings and valves.

Water flow reduction[edit]

Main article: Water conservation

Water flow through a tap can be reduced by inexpensive small plastic flow reducers. These restrict flow between 15 and 50%, aiding water conservation and reducing the burden on both water supply and treatment facilities.

Materials[edit]

See also: Pipe (fluid_conveyance) § Materials

The installation of water pipes can be done using the following plastic[2] and metal[2] materials:

Plastic[edit]

  • polybutylene (PB)
  • high density cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X)
  • block copolymer of polypropylene (PP-B)
  • the polypropylene copolymer (PP-H)
  • random copolymer of polypropylene (random) (PP-R)
  • Layer: cross-linked polyethylene, aluminum, high-density polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-HD)
  • Layer: polyethylene crosslinked, aluminum, cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-X)
  • Layer copolymer of a random polypropylene, aluminum, polypropylene random copolymer (PP-R / Al / PP-R)
  • polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated (PVC-C)
  • polyvinyl chloride - not softened(only cold water) (PVC-U)

Metals[edit]

  • carbon steel, ordinary galvanized
  • corrosion resistant steel
  • Deoxidized High Phosphorus copper (Cu-DHP)
  • lead (no longer used for new installations due to its toxicity)

Other materials, if the pipes made from them have been let into circulation and the widespread use in the construction of the water supply systems.

Lead pipes[edit]

For many centuries, water pipes were made of lead, because of its ease of processing and durability. The use of lead pipes was a cause of health problems due to ignorance of the dangers of lead on the human body, which causes miscarriages and high death rates of newborns. Lead pipes, which were installed mostly in the late 1800s in the US, are still common today, much of which are located in the Northeast and the Midwest.[3] Their impact is relatively small due to the fouling of pipes and stone cessation of the evolution of lead in the water; however, lead pipes are still detrimental. Most of the lead pipes that exist today are being removed and replaced with the more common material, copper or some type of plastic.

Remnants of pipes in some languages are the names of the experts involved in the execution, reparation, maintenance, and installation of water supply systems, which have been formed from the Latin word 'lead', English word 'plumber', French word, 'plombier'.

Distribution systems and contamination[edit]

Main articles: Drinking water, Water supply network, and Water distribution system

Modern plumbing delivers clean, safe, and potable water to each service point in water distribution system, including taps.[4] It is important that the clean water not be contaminated by the wastewater (disposal) side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been one of the largest killers of humans.[5]

Most of the mandates for enforcing drinking water quality standards are not for the distribution system, but for the treatment plant. Even though the water distribution system is supposed to deliver the treated water to the consumers' taps without water quality degradation, complicated physical, chemical, and biological factors within the system can cause contamination of tap water.[4]

Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy and is often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.[6]

Water supply[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Water supply.[edit]
A girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in Kawempe, Uganda.

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. These systems are what supply drinking water to populations around the globe.[7] Aspects of service quality include continuity of supply, water quality and water pressure. The institutional responsibility for water supply is arranged differently in different countries and regions (urban versus rural). It usually includes issues surrounding policy and regulation, service provision and standardization.

The cost of supplying water consists, to a very large extent, of fixed costs (capital costs and personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water consumed (mainly energy and chemicals). Almost all service providers in the world charge tariffs to recover part of their costs.

Comparison to bottled water[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Bottled water § Bottled water versus tap water.[edit]

Bottled water may have reduced amounts of copper, lead, and other metal contaminants since it does not run through the plumbing pipes where tap water is exposed to metal corrosion; however, this varies by the household and plumbing system.[8]

In much of the developed world, chlorine often is added as a disinfectant to tap water. If the water contains organic matter, this may produce other byproducts in the water such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, which has shown to increase the risk of cancer.[9] The level of residual chlorine found at around 0.0002 g per litre, which is too small to cause any health problems directly.[8] The chlorine concentration recommended by World Health Organization is between 0.0005 and 0.0002 g/L.[10]

The documentary Tapped argues against the bottled water industry, asserting that tap water is healthier, more environmentally sustainable, and more ecologically sound than bottled water. The film focuses on the bottled water industry in the United States. The film has received largely positive reviews, and has spawned college campus groups such as Beyond the Bottle. Yet, as many people remain generally unaware of the negative health and environmental impacts associated with bottled water, recent research in environmental psychology has started to investigate how to reduce the public's consumption of bottled water.[11][12][13]

United States[edit]

Contaminant levels found in tap water vary between households and plumbing systems. While the majority of US households have access to high-quality tap water, demand for bottled water increases.[14] In 2002, the Gallup Public Opinion Poll revealed that the possible health risk associated with tap water consumption is one of the main reasons that cause American consumers to prefer bottled water over tap water.[15]

The trust level towards tap water depends on various criteria, including the existing governmental regulations towards the water quality and their appliance. In 1993, the cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, led to a massive hospitalization of more than 400,000 residents and was considered the largest in US history.[16] Severe violations of tap water standards influence the decrease in public trust.[17]

The difference in water quality between bottled and tap water is debatable. In 1999, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) released controversial findings from a 4-year study on bottled water. The study claimed that one-third of the tested waters were contaminated with synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic. At least one sample exceeded state guidelines for contamination levels in bottled water.[18]

In the United States, some municipalities make an effort to use tap water over bottled water on governmental properties and events. Voters in Washington State repealed a bottled water tax via citizen initiative.[19][20]

See also[edit]

  • ASTM B75-02 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube, B42-02e1 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Pipe, Standard Sizes, B88-03 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Water Tube
  • Automatic balancing valves – Component of central heating and cooling systems
  • Fountain – Architecture which pours water into a basin or jets it into the air
  • Pipe support – Mounting element that transfers loads from a pipe to supporting structures
  • Plumbing – Systems for conveying fluids
  • Water fluoridation – Addition of fluoride to a water supply to reduce tooth decay
  • Water supply – Provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations or others
  • Water pipe – Systems for conveying fluids

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022: special focus on gender. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO), 2023
  2. ^ a b "Takagi T-KJr2-IN-NG Indoor". tanklesses.com. 2020.
  3. ^ Troesken, Werner (2006). The great lead water pipe disaster. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-20167-4. OCLC 70176961.
  4. ^ a b Board., National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks. National Research Council (U.S.). Water Science and Technology (2006). Drinking water distribution systems : assessing and reducing risks. National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-10306-1. OCLC 71294470.
  5. ^ Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization, Modern Marvels video series, The History Chfifr5tyk A&E Television, 1996
  6. ^ "Why is my tap water cloudy?". www.mwra.com. Retrieved 2023-03-27.
  7. ^ "Public Supply Water Use". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-10-03.
  8. ^ a b Petraccia, L.; Liberati, G.; Masciullo S.G.; Grassi M.; Fraioli, A. (2006). "Water, mineral waters and health". Clinical Nutrition. 25 (3): 377–385. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2005.10.002. PMID 16314004.
  9. ^ "Final Report – Health Risk of the Trihalomethanes Found in Drinking Water Carcinogenic Activity and Interactions – Research Project Database – NCER – ORD – US EPA". epa.gov. 3 September 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  10. ^ World Health Organization, "How to measure chlorine residual in water" WHO – Technical Notes for Emergencies, Technical Note No. 11, 4 Draft revised: 7.1.05 (pdf) Archived 7 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ van der Linden, S. "Exploring Beliefs About Bottled Water and Intentions To Reduce Consumption: The Dual-Effect of Social Norm Activation and Persuasive Information". Environment and Behavior. doi:10.1177/0013916513515239. S2CID 220350200.
  12. ^ Santos, Jessica; van der Linden, Sander (2016). "Changing Norms by Changing Behavior: The Princeton Drink Local Program" (PDF). Environmental Practice. 18 (2): 1–7. doi:10.1017/S1466046616000144. S2CID 130162044. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 August 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
  13. ^ "Persuading the public to reduce bottled water consumption" (PDF). European Commission. 3 September 2015.
  14. ^ Doria, Miguel F. (2006-06-01). "Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences". Journal of Water and Health. 4 (2): 271–276. doi:10.2166/wh.2006.0023. ISSN 1477-8920. PMID 16813019.
  15. ^ Saylor, Amber; Prokopy, Linda Stalker; Amberg, Shannon (September 2011). "What's Wrong with the Tap? Examining Perceptions of Tap Water and Bottled Water at Purdue University". Environmental Management. 48 (3): 588–601. Bibcode:2011EnMan..48..588S. doi:10.1007/s00267-011-9692-6. ISSN 0364-152X. PMID 21643837. S2CID 22067616.
  16. ^ Mac Kenzie, William R.; Hoxie, Neil J.; Proctor, Mary E.; Gradus, M. Stephen; Blair, Kathleen A.; Peterson, Dan E.; Kazmierczak, James J.; Addiss, David G.; Fox, Kim R.; Rose, Joan B.; Davis, Jeffrey P. (1994-07-21). "A Massive Outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium Infection Transmitted through the Public Water Supply". New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (3): 161–167. doi:10.1056/NEJM199407213310304. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 7818640.
  17. ^ Pierce, Gregory; Gonzalez, Silvia (2017-02-01). "Mistrust at the tap? Factors contributing to public drinking water (mis)perception across US households". Water Policy. 19 (1): 1–12. doi:10.2166/wp.2016.143. ISSN 1366-7017.
  18. ^ "The Truth About Tap". NRDC. January 5, 2016. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  19. ^ McNamara, Neal (December 2, 2010). "Washington state says goodbye to bottle and candy taxes". Federal Way Mirror. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  20. ^ "Initiative Measure 1107 Concerns reversing certain 2010 amendments to state tax laws". Washington Secretary of State · Elections Division. Retrieved 2 April 2022.

External links[edit]

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