Salar del Hombre Muerto: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 25°21′0″S 67°4′12″W / 25.35000°S 67.07000°W / -25.35000; -67.07000
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{{Infobox lake
{{Infobox body of water
|image=Salar del Hombre Muerto.tif
|image=Salar del Hombre Muerto.tif
|caption=The western portion of the salt pan; most of eastern portion not pictured
|caption=The western portion of the salt pan; most of eastern portion not pictured
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}}
}}


'''Salar del Hombre Muerto''' ({{trans|Salt Pan of the Dead Man}}) is a [[salt pan (geology)|salt pan]] in [[Argentina]], in the [[Antofagasta de la Sierra Department]]<ref name="Lende2018" /> on the border between the [[Salta Province|Salta]] and [[Catamarca Province]]s.<ref name="AriasBarbarán2009" /> It covers an area of {{convert|600|km2}} and is in part covered by debris. During the [[Pleistocene]] it was sometimes a lake, but today only parts of the salt pan are covered by perennial water bodies; its major tributary is the Rio de Los Patos.
'''Salar del Hombre Muerto''' ({{trans|Salt Pan of the Dead Man}}) is a [[salt pan (geology)|salt pan]] in [[Argentina]], in the [[Antofagasta de la Sierra Department]]<ref name="Lende2018" /> on the border between the [[Salta Province|Salta]] and [[Catamarca Province]]s.<ref name="AriasBarbarán2009" /> It covers an area of {{convert|600|km2}} and is in part covered by debris. During the [[Pleistocene]] it was sometimes a lake, but today only parts of the salt pan are covered by perennial water bodies; its major tributary is the [[Río de los Patos]].


Part of the "Lithium Triangle" of [[Salt pan (geology)|salars]], Salar del Hombre Muerto is one of the world's most important sources of [[lithium]], an element crucial for manufacturing [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], which are very important in [[renewable energy]] technology and [[electric car]]s.
Part of the [[Lithium Triangle]] of [[Salt pan (geology)|salars]], Salar del Hombre Muerto is one of the world's most important sources of [[lithium]], an element crucial for manufacturing [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], which are very important in [[renewable energy]] technology and [[electric car]]s.


== Geography and geomorphology ==
== Geography and geomorphology ==


Salar del Hombre Muerto is a {{convert|600|km|adj=on}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} [[salt pan (geology)|salt pan]] with irregular margins{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=227}} resembling a square. To the north lies the elongated, narrow Lanja Negra or Tincalayu peninsula, while the anvil-shaped Peninsula de Hombre Muerto protrudes from the southeastern side. Between the two lies a central island named Farallon Catal{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=228}} with an area of {{convert|72|km2}} that separates Hombre Muerto into two halves,<ref name="Alonso2006" /> an eastern one and a western one;{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=62}} the eastern part (also known as {{lang|es|Salar de Vida}}{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=62}}) is covered by debris, while the western part is covered by [[evaporite]]s{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=303}} with a polygonal surface appearance.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} Two other islands are the Tetas de la Pachamama in the eastern and Cerro Oscuro in the southern sector of the Salar.<ref name="Alonso2006" /> Close to Salar del Hombre Muerto lie ten potential [[impact crater]]s with diameters of {{convert|90|-|250|m}} that may have formed during the last 500,000 years<ref name="Rocca2010" /> and certainly very recently, although they could also be collapse structures in the underlying [[alluvial fan]].<ref name="Acevedo2015" />
Salar del Hombre Muerto is a {{convert|600|km|adj=on}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} [[salt pan (geology)|salt pan]] with irregular margins{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=227}} resembling a square. To the north lies the elongated, narrow Lanja Negra or Tincalayu peninsula, while the anvil-shaped Peninsula de Hombre Muerto protrudes from the southeastern side. Between the two lies a central island named Farallon Catal{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=228}} with an area of {{convert|72|km2}} that separates Hombre Muerto into two halves,<ref name="Alonso2006" /> an eastern one and a western one;{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=62}} the eastern part (also known as {{lang|es|Salar de Vida}}{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=62}}) is covered by debris, while the western part is covered by [[evaporite]]s{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=303}} with a polygonal surface appearance.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} Two other islands are the Tetas de la Pachamama in the eastern and Cerro Oscuro in the southern sector of the Salar.<ref name="Alonso2006" /> An open water body covers {{convert|65|km2}} in the eastern part.<ref name="Steinmetz2020" /> Close to Salar del Hombre Muerto lie ten potential [[impact crater]]s with diameters of {{convert|90|-|250|m}} that may have formed during the last 500,000 years<ref name="Rocca2010" /> and certainly very recently, although they could also be collapse structures in the underlying [[alluvial fan]].<ref name="Acevedo2015" />


The [[Drainage basin|watershed]] of Salar del Hombre Muerto has an area of {{convert|4000|km2}},{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} half of which is drained by the {{convert|150|km}} long Rio de Los Patos; this river enters into the salar from the northeast but originates on [[Galán]] and the [[Cordillera Oriental (Bolivia)|Eastern Cordillera]] south of Hombre Muerto. Another tributary is the Rio Trapiche which comes into Hombre Muerto from the south and the Valle Hombre Muerto which lies between the two.{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} The western side of Hombre Muerto on the other hand has only small [[spring (hydrology)|spring]]s. The Los Patos river has a discharge of {{convert|0.8|-|2|m3/s}} and supplies a perennial lake, named Catal Lagoon, and during the rainy season large parts of the salt pan can flood. The discharge of Rio Trapiche is only about 1/9 of that of Rio de Los Patos.{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=227}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} The Vega Trapiche and Vega Hombre Muerto [[wetland]]s are located on the southern margin of Hombre Muerto.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=94}}<ref name="Alonso2006" />
The [[Drainage basin|watershed]] of Salar del Hombre Muerto has an area of {{convert|4000|km2}},{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} half of which is drained by the {{convert|150|km}} long Rio de Los Patos; this river enters into the salar from the northeast but originates on [[Galán]] and the [[Cordillera Oriental (Bolivia)|Eastern Cordillera]] south of Hombre Muerto. Another tributary is the Rio Trapiche which comes into Hombre Muerto from the south, the Valle Hombre Muerto which lies between the two{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} and the Rio Ratones from the north.<ref name="Steinmetz2020" /> The western side of Hombre Muerto on the other hand has only small [[spring (hydrology)|spring]]s. The Los Patos river has a discharge of {{convert|0.8|-|2|m3/s}} and supplies a perennial lake, named Catal Lagoon, and during the rainy season large parts of the salt pan can flood. The discharge of Rio Trapiche is only about 1/9 of that of Rio de Los Patos.{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=227}}{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} The Vega Trapiche and Vega Hombre Muerto [[wetland]]s are located on the southern margin of Hombre Muerto.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=94}}<ref name="Alonso2006" />


Salar del Hombre Muerto lies at {{convert|4300|-|4100|m}}{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} elevation in the southern [[Puna grassland|Puna]]{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} and is surrounded by mountains, including volcanoes and summits reaching elevations that exceed {{convert|5000|m}}.{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} The [[Galán]] volcano lies just south of Hombre Muerto{{sfn|DeCelles|Zandt|Beck|Currie|2014|p=464}} and has produced large [[ignimbrite]]s,<ref name="FolkesWright2011" /> while [[Cerro Ratones]] is located on the northeastern margin;{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=303}} additional volcanoes and [[fault (geology)|fault]]s exist in the area of Hombre Muerto. Farther west-southwest lies the long [[Salar de Antofalla]]{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=4}} while the [[Salar de Ratones]] and [[Salar de Diablillos]] are found north-northeast and northeast from Salar del Hombre Muerto.{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=228}} {{convert|302|km}} farther east lies the city of [[Salta]].{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}}
Salar del Hombre Muerto lies at {{convert|4300|-|4100|m}}{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} elevation in the southern [[Puna grassland|Puna]]{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} and is surrounded by mountains, including volcanoes and summits reaching elevations that exceed {{convert|5000|m}}.{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}} The [[Galán]] volcano lies just south of Hombre Muerto{{sfn|DeCelles|Zandt|Beck|Currie|2014|p=464}} and has produced large [[ignimbrite]]s,<ref name="FolkesWright2011" /> while {{convert|5252|m}} high<ref name="Steinmetz2020" /> [[Cerro Ratones]] is located on the northeastern margin;{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=303}} additional volcanoes and [[fault (geology)|fault]]s exist in the area of Hombre Muerto. Farther west-southwest lies the long [[Salar de Antofalla]]{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=4}} while the [[Salar de Ratones]] and [[Salar de Diablillos]] are found north-northeast and northeast from Salar del Hombre Muerto.{{sfn|Garrett|1998|p=228}} {{convert|302|km}} farther east lies the city of [[Salta]].{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=302}}


=== Geological history ===
=== Geological history ===


The terrain of the area is formed by crystalline rocks of [[Paleozoic]] age, sediments of Paleozoic to [[Mesozoic]] age and [[Cenozoic]] volcanic rocks such as the 2.2–2 million-year-old Galán. [[Fault (geology)|Fault]]s dissect the area{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} and cut southward across the Salar;<ref name="Alonso2006" /> some volcanoes are associated with them{{sfn|Marrett|Allmendinger|Alonso|Drake|1994|p=184}} and faulting continued into the [[Quaternary]].{{sfn|Marrett|Allmendinger|Alonso|Drake|1994|p=203}} The deposition of [[evaporite]]s appears to have commenced 15 million years ago,{{sfn|DeCelles|Zandt|Beck|Currie|2014|p=474}} perhaps at the same time as [[endorheic]] drainage developed,<ref name="Carrapa2005" /> but most of the deposits are of [[Quaternary]] age.{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} Volcanic activity also took place in the area of Hombre Muerto, with [[andesite]]s from its area dated to the [[Pliocene]] and [[Pleistocene]]; one flow is only about 800,000 years old.{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=10}}
The terrain of the area is formed by crystalline rocks of [[Paleozoic]] age, sediments of Paleozoic to [[Mesozoic]] age and [[Cenozoic]] volcanic rocks such as the 2.2–2 million-year-old Galán. [[Fault (geology)|Fault]]s dissect the area{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} and cut southward across the Salar;<ref name="Alonso2006" /> some volcanoes are associated with them{{sfn|Marrett|Allmendinger|Alonso|Drake|1994|p=184}} and faulting continued into the [[Quaternary]].{{sfn|Marrett|Allmendinger|Alonso|Drake|1994|p=203}} The deposition of [[evaporite]]s appears to have commenced 15 million years ago,{{sfn|DeCelles|Zandt|Beck|Currie|2014|p=474}} perhaps at the same time as [[endorheic]] drainage developed,<ref name="Carrapa2005" /> but most of the deposits are of [[Quaternary]] age.{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} Volcanic activity also took place in the area of Hombre Muerto, with [[andesite]]s from its area dated to the [[Pliocene]] and [[Pleistocene]]; one flow is only about 800,000 years old.{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=10}}


Salar del Hombre Muerto in the past received more water.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} From the [[Pleistocene]] to the [[Holocene]], Salar del Hombre Muerto fluctuated between being a [[salt lake]] to being a salt-encrusted [[salt pan (geology)|salt flat]]. Wet lake stages occurred during [[oxygen isotope stage]] 3 and 4{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} and during the [[Last Glacial Maximum|Last Glacial Maximum,]] although it was smaller than preceding lake stages,{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=313}} with a last lake stage about 8,000 years ago; since then the climate has been dry.{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} The highstand 44,000–37,000 years ago was associated with the formation of [[Lake Minchin]] in the [[Altiplano]].<ref name="McGlueCohen2013" /> The former lakes deposited lacustrine [[travertine]] in the area.<ref name="Alonso2006" />
Salar del Hombre Muerto in the past received more water.{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} From the [[Pleistocene]] to the [[Holocene]], Salar del Hombre Muerto fluctuated between being a [[salt lake]] to being a salt-encrusted [[salt pan (geology)|salt flat]]. Wet lake stages occurred during [[oxygen isotope stage]] 3 and 4{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} and during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], although it was smaller than preceding lake stages,{{sfn|Godfrey|Jordan|Lowenstein|Alonso|2003|p=313}} with a last lake stage about 8,000 years ago; since then the climate has been dry.{{sfn|LOWENSTEIN|LI|HANNA|KU|1998|p=115}} The highstand 44,000–37,000 years ago was associated with the formation of [[Lake Minchin]] in the [[Altiplano]].<ref name="McGlueCohen2013" /> The former lakes deposited lacustrine [[travertine]] in the area.<ref name="Alonso2006" />


== Climate and life ==
== Climate and life ==
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== Human activity ==
== Human activity ==
[[File:Vista Mina Incahuasi.jpg|thumb|The Incahuasi gold mine]]
[[File:Vista Mina Incahuasi.jpg|thumb|The Incahuasi gold mine]]
Mining activities began in the 19th century.<ref name="Garcés2017" /> The Incahuasi [[gold]] mine lies on the Incahuasi peninsula of Salar del Hombre Muerto and is associated with two towns built in the 18th century, Nuestra Señora de Loreto de Ingaguasi and Agua Salada.<ref name="Lema2015" /> In the past, the area was also used as a source for [[obsidian]];<ref name="Baldini2011" /> obsidian from Hombre Muerto has been found in [[Holocene]] [[archeological site]]s at [[Antofagasta de la Sierra]].<ref name="Mondini2013" />
Mining activities began in the 19th century.<ref name="Garcés2017" /> The Incahuasi [[gold]] mine lies on the Incahuasi peninsula of Salar del Hombre Muerto and is associated with two towns built in the 18th century, Nuestra Señora de Loreto de Ingaguasi and Agua Salada.<ref name="Lema2015" /> In the past, the area was also used as a source for [[obsidian]];<ref name="Baldini2011" /> obsidian from Hombre Muerto has been found in [[Holocene]] [[archeological site]]s at [[Antofagasta de la Sierra]].<ref name="Mondini2013" />


The name "Salar del Hombre Muerto" means "Salt Pan of the Dead Man"<ref name="Tarassoff2003" /> and may be a reference to the presence of [[mummies]] in the area.<ref name="Aráoz2015" /> More recently since the 1990s the Salar del Hombre Muerto has drawn [[tourist]]s.<ref name="Díaz de Luna2015" /> At Salar del Hombre Muerto there is a [[brine]] processing facility,{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=263}} an [[airfield]]{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=239}} on the northern area of the salar<ref name="Alonso2006" /> and a [[gas pipeline]].<ref name="AriasBarbarán2009" />
The name "Salar del Hombre Muerto" means "Salt Pan of the Dead Man"<ref name="Tarassoff2003" /> and may be a reference to the presence of [[mummies]] in the area.<ref name="Aráoz2015" /> More recently since the 1990s the Salar del Hombre Muerto has drawn [[tourist]]s.<ref name="Díaz de Luna2015" /> [[Lithium]] extraction began in 1996 or 1997.{{sfn|Poveda Bonilla|2020|p=46}} At Salar del Hombre Muerto there is a [[brine]] processing facility,{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=263}} an [[airfield]]{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=239}} on the northern area of the salar<ref name="Alonso2006" /> and a [[gas pipeline]].<ref name="AriasBarbarán2009" />


=== Mining ===
=== Mining ===
{{see also|Pampean Pegmatite Province}}
[[File:Lithium mine, Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina.jpg|thumb|Lithium mine in Salar del Hombre Muerto]]
[[File:Lithium mine, Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina.jpg|thumb|Lithium mine in Salar del Hombre Muerto]]
As part of the "Proyecto Fénix",{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=224}} the company FMC Lithium obtains [[lithium]] from Salar del Hombre Muerto,<ref name="Liu2019" /> employing about 110 people.{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=184}} The lithium-rich [[brine]]s may have formed through the [[leaching (pedology)|leaching]] of [[pyroclastic rock]]s;<ref name="KayCoira2011" /> their total amount at Salar del Hombre Muerto is estimated to be 800,000 tons.{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=65}} Another mining project at Salar del Hombre Muerto is called "Sal de Vida".{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}}
As part of the "Proyecto Fénix",{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=224}} the company Arcadium Lithium (before 2018 FMC Lithium, between 2018-2024 Livent{{sfn|Poveda Bonilla|2020|p=21}} <ref name="ArcadiumLithium2024" />) obtains [[lithium]] from Salar del Hombre Muerto,<ref name="Liu2019" /> employing about 110 people{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=184}} and producing about {{val|22500|u=tons/year}}{{sfn|Obaya|Céspedes|2021|p=40}} equivalents of [[lithium carbonate]];{{sfn|Obaya|Céspedes|2021|p=7}} an expansion by about {{val|6000|u=tons/year}} was underway in 2021.{{sfn|Obaya|Céspedes|2021|p=53}} The lithium-rich [[brine]]s may have formed through the [[leaching (pedology)|leaching]] of [[pyroclastic rock]]s;<ref name="KayCoira2011" /> their total amount at Salar del Hombre Muerto is estimated to be 800,000 tons.{{sfn|Kesler|Gruber|Medina|Keoleian|2012|p=65}} Another mining project at Salar del Hombre Muerto is called "Sal de Vida";{{sfn|Godfrey|Chan|Alonso|Lowenstein|2013|p=93}} it is run by Galaxy Resources and was underway as of 2021.{{sfn|Obaya|Céspedes|2021|p=75}} The South Korean Pohand Iron and Steel Company is a third company involved at Hombre Muerto.<ref name="JusteJuste2021" />


Together with the [[Salar de Uyuni]] and the [[Salar de Atacama]], the Salar del Hombre Muerto defines the "Lithium Triangle" <ref name="Hovland2018" /> which {{as of|2009|lc=y}} contains most of the lithium reserves of the world. <ref name="Rodrigues2015" /> About 50%–70% of the global lithium supply originates at Salar de Atacama and Salar del Hombre Muerto,{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=8}}<ref name="Hoshino2013" /> the latter of which is one of the most important lithium resources in the world, owing to the high quality of the [[ore]] there.<ref name="Sánchez2015" /> Lithium is an important material used during the construction of many electronic devices such as [[electric car]]s and other uses related to [[renewable energy]].{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=7}} Lithium resources are viewed as strategic resources in the region, which could be used to facilitate internal development; after some years where a government-run company researched the salt pans the military dictatorship of the [[National Reorganization Process]] sold the mining concession of Salar del Hombre Muerto.<ref name="Fornillo2018" /> [[Boron]] and [[potassium]] are also found at the salar{{sfn|Alonso|2012|p=441}} and [[borate]]s are recovered as a sideproduct;{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} the Tincalayu [[borax]] mine lies on the northern margin of the salar.{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=10}} Lithium mining at Hombre Muerto since 1997 is one of the drivers of an increase in [[mining]] activity in Argentina, with concomitant consequences such as political conflicts about mining.<ref name="Manrique2013" />
Together with the [[Salar de Uyuni]] and the [[Salar de Atacama]], the Salar del Hombre Muerto defines the "Lithium Triangle" <ref name="Hovland2018" /> which {{as of|2009|lc=y}} contains most of the lithium reserves of the world.<ref name="Rodrigues2015" /> About 50%–70% of the global lithium supply originates at Salar de Atacama and Salar del Hombre Muerto,{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=8}}<ref name="Hoshino2013" /> the latter of which is one of the most important lithium resources in the world, owing to the high quality of the [[ore]] there.<ref name="Sánchez2015" /> Lithium is an important material used during the construction of many electronic devices such as [[electric car]]s and other uses related to [[renewable energy]].{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|p=7}} Lithium resources are viewed as strategic resources in the region, which could be used to facilitate internal development; after some years where a government-run company researched the salt pans the military dictatorship of the [[National Reorganization Process]] sold the mining concession of Salar del Hombre Muerto.<ref name="Fornillo2018" /> [[Boron]] and [[potassium]] are also found at the salar{{sfn|Alonso|2012|p=441}} and [[borate]]s are recovered as a sideproduct;{{sfn|Warren|2010|p=227}} the Tincalayu [[borax]] mine lies on the northern margin of the salar.{{sfn|Risse|Trumbull|Coira|Kay|2008|p=10}} Lithium mining at Hombre Muerto since 1997 is one of the drivers of an increase in [[mining]] activity in Argentina, with concomitant consequences such as political conflicts about mining.<ref name="Manrique2013" />


The mining activities have raised concerns among the local population about negative environmental impacts and damage to local livelihoods{{sfn|Lammert|Vormann|2019|pp=136-137}} from, ''e.g.'', the high water consumption{{sfn|Lende|2017|p=233}} and led to a dispute about the water rights relative to the project{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|pp=258-259}} and another conflict about access rights to a local school.{{sfn|Lende|2017|p=226}}
The mining activities have raised concerns among the local population about negative environmental impacts and damage to local livelihoods{{sfn|Lammert|Vormann|2019|pp=136-137}} from, ''e.g.'', the high water consumption{{sfn|Lende|2017|p=233}} and led to a dispute about the water rights relative to the project,{{sfn|Mercado|Cordova|2015|pp=258-259}} the misuse of and intimidatory behaviour during public consultations on the projects,<ref name="Clavijo2022" /> and another conflict about access rights to a local school.{{sfn|Lende|2017|p=226}}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="ArcadiumLithium2024">{{cite news |title=Arcadium Lithium Announces Completion of Merger of Equals between Allkem and Livent |url=https://ir.arcadiumlithium.com/investors/news/news-details/2024/Arcadium-Lithium-Announces-Completion-of-Merger-of-Equals-between-Allkem-and-Livent/ |publisher=Arcadium Lithium |date=4 January 2024|access-date=2 April 2024}}</ref>
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<ref name="Tarassoff2003">{{cite journal |last1=Tarassoff |first1=Peter |title=Who's Who in Mineral Names: Bernardino Rivadavia (1780–1845) |journal=Rocks & Minerals |date=1 February 2003 |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=52–53 |doi=10.1080/00357529.2003.9926692 |issn=0035-7529}}</ref>
<ref name="Clavijo2022">{{cite journal |last1=Clavijo |first1=Araceli |last2=Díaz Paz |first2=Walter F |last3=Lorca |first3=Mauricio |last4=Olivera Andrade |first4=Manuel |last5=Iribarnegaray |first5=Martín A |last6=Garcés |first6=Ingrid |title=Environmental information access and management in the Lithium Triangle: is it transparent information? |journal=Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law |date=3 July 2022 |volume=40 |issue=3 |page=300 |doi=10.1080/02646811.2022.2058770 |s2cid=249143325 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02646811.2022.2058770 |issn=0264-6811}}</ref>
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<ref name="Acevedo2015">{{Cite journal|last=Acevedo|first=Rogelio Daniel|last2=Rocca|first2=Maximiliano C. L.|last3=Ponce|first3=Juan Federico|last4=Stinco|first4=Sergio G.|date=2015|title=Impact Craters in South America|journal=SpringerBriefs in Earth System Sciences|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-13093-4|issn=2191-589X|p=15|isbn=978-3-319-13092-7}}</ref>
<ref name="JusteJuste2021">{{cite journal |last1=Juste |first1=Stella |title=ZICOSUR, paradiplomacia y recursos naturales: el litio y la vinculación con China |journal=Si Somos Americanos |date=June 2021 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=7–31 |doi=10.4067/S0719-09482021000100007 |s2cid=243563597 |url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0719-09482021000100007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=n |issn=0719-0948|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Steinmetz2020">{{cite journal |last1=Steinmetz |first1=Romina Lucrecia López |last2=Salvi |first2=Stefano |last3=Sarchi |first3=Carisa |last4=Santamans |first4=Carla |last5=Steinmetz |first5=Lorena Cecilia López |title=Lithium and Brine Geochemistry in the Salars of the Southern Puna, Andean Plateau of Argentina |journal=Economic Geology |date=1 August 2020 |volume=115 |issue=5 |page=1084 |doi=10.5382/econgeo.4754 |s2cid=225513084 |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/segweb/economicgeology/article/115/5/1079/588738/Lithium-and-Brine-Geochemistry-in-the-Salars-of |language=en |issn=0361-0128}}</ref>
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<ref name="Liu2019">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Gui |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhongwei |last3=Ghahreman |first3=Ahmad |title=Novel approaches for lithium extraction from salt-lake brines: A review |journal=Hydrometallurgy |volume=187 |date=May 2019 |page=7 |doi=10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.05.005}}</ref>
<ref name="Liu2019">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Gui |last2=Zhao |first2=Zhongwei |last3=Ghahreman |first3=Ahmad |title=Novel approaches for lithium extraction from salt-lake brines: A review |journal=Hydrometallurgy |volume=187 |date=May 2019 |page=7 |doi=10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.05.005|doi-access=free }}</ref>
}}
}}


=== Sources ===
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* {{Citation|last=Garrett|first=Donald E.|chapter=Lake or Brine Deposits|date=1998|chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780122760600500061|pages=227–253|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-012276060-0/50006-1|isbn=9780122760600|access-date=2019-05-17|ref=harv|title=Borates}}
* {{Citation|last=Garrett|first=Donald E.|chapter=Lake or Brine Deposits|date=1998|chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780122760600500061|pages=227–253|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-012276060-0/50006-1|isbn=9780122760600|access-date=2019-05-17|title=Borates}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Godfrey |first1=L.V |last2=Jordan |first2=T.E |last3=Lowenstein |first3=T.K |last4=Alonso |first4=R.L |title=Stable isotope constraints on the transport of water to the Andes between 22° and 26°S during the last glacial cycle |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=May 2003 |volume=194 |issue=1–3 |pages=299–317 |doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00283-9 |ref=harv|bibcode=2003PPP...194..299G }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Godfrey |first1=L.V |last2=Jordan |first2=T.E |last3=Lowenstein |first3=T.K |last4=Alonso |first4=R.L |title=Stable isotope constraints on the transport of water to the Andes between 22° and 26°S during the last glacial cycle |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=May 2003 |volume=194 |issue=1–3 |pages=299–317 |doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00283-9 |bibcode=2003PPP...194..299G }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Godfrey |first1=L.V. |last2=Chan |first2=L.-H. |last3=Alonso |first3=R.N. |last4=Lowenstein |first4=T.K. |last5=McDonough |first5=W.F. |last6=Houston |first6=J. |last7=Li |first7=J. |last8=Bobst |first8=A. |last9=Jordan |first9=T.E. |title=The role of climate in the accumulation of lithium-rich brine in the Central Andes |journal=Applied Geochemistry |date=November 2013 |volume=38 |pages=92–102 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.09.002 |ref=harv|bibcode=2013ApGC...38...92G |hdl=11336/3169 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Godfrey |first1=L.V. |last2=Chan |first2=L.-H. |last3=Alonso |first3=R.N. |last4=Lowenstein |first4=T.K. |last5=McDonough |first5=W.F. |last6=Houston |first6=J. |last7=Li |first7=J. |last8=Bobst |first8=A. |last9=Jordan |first9=T.E. |title=The role of climate in the accumulation of lithium-rich brine in the Central Andes |journal=Applied Geochemistry |date=November 2013 |volume=38 |pages=92–102 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.09.002 |bibcode=2013ApGC...38...92G |hdl=11336/3169 |hdl-access=free }}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Kesler |first1=Stephen E. |last2=Gruber |first2=Paul W. |last3=Medina |first3=Pablo A. |last4=Keoleian |first4=Gregory A. |last5=Everson |first5=Mark P. |last6=Wallington |first6=Timothy J. |title=Global lithium resources: Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |date=October 2012 |volume=48 |pages=55–69 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2012.05.006 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lammert |first1=Christian |last2=Vormann |first2=Boris |title=Contours of the Illiberal State: Governing Circulation in the Smart Economy |date=2019 |publisher=Campus Verlag |isbn=9783593510170 |ref=harv |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lammert |first1=Christian |last2=Vormann |first2=Boris |title=Contours of the Illiberal State: Governing Circulation in the Smart Economy |date=2019 |publisher=Campus Verlag |isbn=9783593510170 |language=en}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Lende |first1=Sebastián Gómez |title=Minería metalífera y acumulación por desposesión en Argentina. Categorías de análisis y ejemplos empíricos |journal=RevIISE: Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas |date=2017 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=219–241 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6556731 |issn=2250-5555}}
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{{refend}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=John K. |title=Evaporites through time: Tectonic, climatic and eustatic controls in marine and nonmarine deposits |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |date=February 2010 |volume=98 |issue=3–4 |pages=217–268 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.11.004 |bibcode=2010ESRv...98..217W }}
{{Refend}}


== External links ==
== External links ==

* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328816707_Los_Vertebrados_del_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto Los Vertebrados del Salar del Hombre Muerto]
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328816707_Los_Vertebrados_del_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto Los Vertebrados del Salar del Hombre Muerto]

{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Lakes of Argentina]]
[[Category:Lakes of Argentina]]
[[Category:Lithium mines in Argentina]]
[[Category:Lithium mines in Argentina]]
[[Category:Puna de Atacama]]
[[Category:Salt flats of Argentina]]
[[Category:Landforms of Catamarca Province]]
[[Category:Landforms of Salta Province]]

Latest revision as of 10:01, 25 May 2024

Salar del Hombre Muerto
The western portion of the salt pan; most of eastern portion not pictured
Salar del Hombre Muerto is located in Argentina
Salar del Hombre Muerto
Salar del Hombre Muerto
Coordinates25°21′0″S 67°4′12″W / 25.35000°S 67.07000°W / -25.35000; -67.07000
Typeendorheic
Etymology"Lake of the Dead Man", after mummies found in the area
Primary inflowsRio de Los Patos, Rio Trapiche
Primary outflowsEvaporation
Catchment area4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi)
Surface area600 square kilometres (230 sq mi)
Surface elevationapproximately 4,000 m (13,000 ft)[1]

Salar del Hombre Muerto (transl. Salt Pan of the Dead Man) is a salt pan in Argentina, in the Antofagasta de la Sierra Department[2] on the border between the Salta and Catamarca Provinces.[3] It covers an area of 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi) and is in part covered by debris. During the Pleistocene it was sometimes a lake, but today only parts of the salt pan are covered by perennial water bodies; its major tributary is the Río de los Patos.

Part of the Lithium Triangle of salars, Salar del Hombre Muerto is one of the world's most important sources of lithium, an element crucial for manufacturing lithium-ion batteries, which are very important in renewable energy technology and electric cars.

Geography and geomorphology[edit]

Salar del Hombre Muerto is a 600-kilometre (370 mi)[4] salt pan with irregular margins[5] resembling a square. To the north lies the elongated, narrow Lanja Negra or Tincalayu peninsula, while the anvil-shaped Peninsula de Hombre Muerto protrudes from the southeastern side. Between the two lies a central island named Farallon Catal[6] with an area of 72 square kilometres (28 sq mi) that separates Hombre Muerto into two halves,[7] an eastern one and a western one;[8] the eastern part (also known as Salar de Vida[8]) is covered by debris, while the western part is covered by evaporites[9] with a polygonal surface appearance.[10] Two other islands are the Tetas de la Pachamama in the eastern and Cerro Oscuro in the southern sector of the Salar.[7] An open water body covers 65 square kilometres (25 sq mi) in the eastern part.[11] Close to Salar del Hombre Muerto lie ten potential impact craters with diameters of 90–250 metres (300–820 ft) that may have formed during the last 500,000 years[12] and certainly very recently, although they could also be collapse structures in the underlying alluvial fan.[13]

The watershed of Salar del Hombre Muerto has an area of 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi),[4] half of which is drained by the 150 kilometres (93 mi) long Rio de Los Patos; this river enters into the salar from the northeast but originates on Galán and the Eastern Cordillera south of Hombre Muerto. Another tributary is the Rio Trapiche which comes into Hombre Muerto from the south, the Valle Hombre Muerto which lies between the two[4][10] and the Rio Ratones from the north.[11] The western side of Hombre Muerto on the other hand has only small springs. The Los Patos river has a discharge of 0.8–2 cubic metres per second (28–71 cu ft/s) and supplies a perennial lake, named Catal Lagoon, and during the rainy season large parts of the salt pan can flood. The discharge of Rio Trapiche is only about 1/9 of that of Rio de Los Patos.[5][10] The Vega Trapiche and Vega Hombre Muerto wetlands are located on the southern margin of Hombre Muerto.[14][7]

Salar del Hombre Muerto lies at 4,300–4,100 metres (14,100–13,500 ft)[15] elevation in the southern Puna[16] and is surrounded by mountains, including volcanoes and summits reaching elevations that exceed 5,000 metres (16,000 ft).[4] The Galán volcano lies just south of Hombre Muerto[17] and has produced large ignimbrites,[18] while 5,252 metres (17,231 ft) high[11] Cerro Ratones is located on the northeastern margin;[9] additional volcanoes and faults exist in the area of Hombre Muerto. Farther west-southwest lies the long Salar de Antofalla[19] while the Salar de Ratones and Salar de Diablillos are found north-northeast and northeast from Salar del Hombre Muerto.[6] 302 kilometres (188 mi) farther east lies the city of Salta.[4]

Geological history[edit]

The terrain of the area is formed by crystalline rocks of Paleozoic age, sediments of Paleozoic to Mesozoic age and Cenozoic volcanic rocks such as the 2.2–2 million-year-old Galán. Faults dissect the area[10] and cut southward across the Salar;[7] some volcanoes are associated with them[20] and faulting continued into the Quaternary.[21] The deposition of evaporites appears to have commenced 15 million years ago,[22] perhaps at the same time as endorheic drainage developed,[23] but most of the deposits are of Quaternary age.[15] Volcanic activity also took place in the area of Hombre Muerto, with andesites from its area dated to the Pliocene and Pleistocene; one flow is only about 800,000 years old.[24]

Salar del Hombre Muerto in the past received more water.[10] From the Pleistocene to the Holocene, Salar del Hombre Muerto fluctuated between being a salt lake to being a salt-encrusted salt flat. Wet lake stages occurred during oxygen isotope stage 3 and 4[16] and during the Last Glacial Maximum, although it was smaller than preceding lake stages,[25] with a last lake stage about 8,000 years ago; since then the climate has been dry.[16] The highstand 44,000–37,000 years ago was associated with the formation of Lake Minchin in the Altiplano.[26] The former lakes deposited lacustrine travertine in the area.[7]

Climate and life[edit]

A weather station was situated at Salar del Hombre Muerto between 1927 and 1931.[27] The mean temperatures range from 23 °C (73 °F) in summer to 8 °C (46 °F) in winter; the day-night variation is about 20–25 °C (36–45 °F)[9] and maximum temperatures at Salar del Hombre Muerto are about 28 °C (82 °F).[28] The climate is arid;[29] the 60–80 millimetres per year (2.4–3.1 in/year)[5] precipitation originates mainly in the Amazon and comes to the salar during summer, but winter snowfall also occurs.[4]

Algae in the perennial water surfaces draw flamingos, and bunch grass around the salar is grazed by burros and llamas[5] while copepods live in the Salar.[30] Rainbow trouts have been introduced in a stream of the area.[31] Fossil bird footprints have been found in the area as well.[32]

Climate data for Salar del Hombre Muerto (1927–1931)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 19.6
(67.3) 		20.1
(68.2) 		17.8
(64.0) 		12.8
(55.0) 		9.9
(49.8) 		7.1
(44.8) 		6.0
(42.8) 		8.4
(47.1) 		11.2
(52.2) 		16.2
(61.2) 		17.7
(63.9) 		19.4
(66.9) 		13.9
(57.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 10.9
(51.6) 		10.3
(50.5) 		8.3
(46.9) 		3.9
(39.0) 		1.8
(35.2) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		−0.5
(31.1) 		1.1
(34.0) 		5.9
(42.6) 		7.8
(46.0) 		9.9
(49.8) 		4.7
(40.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.2
(36.0) 		0.4
(32.7) 		−1.2
(29.8) 		0.5
(32.9) 		−6.3
(20.7) 		−8.3
(17.1) 		−11.5
(11.3) 		−9.4
(15.1) 		−8.9
(16.0) 		−4.3
(24.3) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		0.3
(32.5) 		−4.0
(24.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 31.4
(1.24) 		2.6
(0.10) 		1.6
(0.06) 		11.0
(0.43) 		1.0
(0.04) 		4.0
(0.16) 		7.5
(0.30) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		4.7
(0.19) 		63.8
(2.51)
Average relative humidity (%) 40.0 30.2 27.4 20.0 20.1 22.3 23.0 19.4 16.6 19.5 23.7 31.3 24.5
Source: Secretaria de Mineria[33]

Human activity[edit]

The Incahuasi gold mine

Mining activities began in the 19th century.[34] The Incahuasi gold mine lies on the Incahuasi peninsula of Salar del Hombre Muerto and is associated with two towns built in the 18th century, Nuestra Señora de Loreto de Ingaguasi and Agua Salada.[35] In the past, the area was also used as a source for obsidian;[36] obsidian from Hombre Muerto has been found in Holocene archeological sites at Antofagasta de la Sierra.[37]

The name "Salar del Hombre Muerto" means "Salt Pan of the Dead Man"[38] and may be a reference to the presence of mummies in the area.[39] More recently since the 1990s the Salar del Hombre Muerto has drawn tourists.[40] Lithium extraction began in 1996 or 1997.[41] At Salar del Hombre Muerto there is a brine processing facility,[42] an airfield[43] on the northern area of the salar[7] and a gas pipeline.[3]

Mining[edit]

See also: Pampean Pegmatite Province
Lithium mine in Salar del Hombre Muerto

As part of the "Proyecto Fénix",[44] the company Arcadium Lithium (before 2018 FMC Lithium, between 2018-2024 Livent[45] [46]) obtains lithium from Salar del Hombre Muerto,[47] employing about 110 people[48] and producing about 22500 tons/year[49] equivalents of lithium carbonate;[50] an expansion by about 6000 tons/year was underway in 2021.[51] The lithium-rich brines may have formed through the leaching of pyroclastic rocks;[52] their total amount at Salar del Hombre Muerto is estimated to be 800,000 tons.[53] Another mining project at Salar del Hombre Muerto is called "Sal de Vida";[10] it is run by Galaxy Resources and was underway as of 2021.[54] The South Korean Pohand Iron and Steel Company is a third company involved at Hombre Muerto.[55]

Together with the Salar de Uyuni and the Salar de Atacama, the Salar del Hombre Muerto defines the "Lithium Triangle" [56] which as of 2009 contains most of the lithium reserves of the world.[57] About 50%–70% of the global lithium supply originates at Salar de Atacama and Salar del Hombre Muerto,[58][59] the latter of which is one of the most important lithium resources in the world, owing to the high quality of the ore there.[60] Lithium is an important material used during the construction of many electronic devices such as electric cars and other uses related to renewable energy.[61] Lithium resources are viewed as strategic resources in the region, which could be used to facilitate internal development; after some years where a government-run company researched the salt pans the military dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process sold the mining concession of Salar del Hombre Muerto.[62] Boron and potassium are also found at the salar[63] and borates are recovered as a sideproduct;[15] the Tincalayu borax mine lies on the northern margin of the salar.[24] Lithium mining at Hombre Muerto since 1997 is one of the drivers of an increase in mining activity in Argentina, with concomitant consequences such as political conflicts about mining.[64]

The mining activities have raised concerns among the local population about negative environmental impacts and damage to local livelihoods[65] from, e.g., the high water consumption[29] and led to a dispute about the water rights relative to the project,[66] the misuse of and intimidatory behaviour during public consultations on the projects,[67] and another conflict about access rights to a local school.[68]

References[edit]

  1. ^ TECHNICAL REPORT FOR THE HOMBRE MUERTO NORTH PROJECT SALTA AND CATAMARCA PROVINCES, ARGENTINA (Santiago, Chile: Montgomery & Associates Consultores Limitada, Oct. 9, 2017, p. 24, online at https://www.nrgmetalsinc.com/wp-content/uploads/NRG-43-101-Technical-Report-Hombre-Muerto-North.pdf .
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Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

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