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Peter, Pieter, or usually Petrus Camper (May 11, 1722 in Leyden – April 7, 1789 in The Hague) was a Dutch anatomist and a naturalist, as well as an artist and a patron of art. He also was a member of the state council of the Dutch Republic. One of the first to interest himself to comparative anatomy and paleology, he also invented the measure of the "facial angle", aimed at measuring the intelligence of animals and human beings in an attempt to "scientifically" demonstrate racist theories. Petrus Camper was an associate of the French Academy of Sciences and had an eulogy in his honour composed by Nicolas de Condorcet and Félix Vicq d'Azyr.

Studies and teaching

A brillant alumni, he studied sciences, philosophy and drawing. His professors included Pieter van Musschenbroek (1669-1721) and Willem Jacob 's Gravesande (1688-1742) for physics and mathematics, Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738) and Hieronym David Gaubius (1705-1780) for medicine. Petrus Camper became doctor in medicine at 24. He then traveled to Prussia, England, France and Switzerland. He held sundry professorships, being first named professor of philosophy, anatomy and surgery in 1750 in the University of Franeker. Starting in 1755, he resided in Amsterdam where he occupied a chair of anatomy and surgery, later completed by a medicine chair. He retired five years later to dedicate himself to scientifical research. But he finally chose, three years later, to accept the chair of anatomy, surgery and botancis at the University of Groningen before retiring in 1773.

Among his many works, he studied osteology of birds and discovered the presence of air in the inner cavities of birds' skeletons. He also interested himself to the anatomy of the orangutan, demonstrating against contemporary theories that it was a different specie from the human being, and not simply a "degenerate" type of human. Petrus Camper published memoirs on hearing of fishes, the best form of shoes, rabids, building of dikes, etc.

Comparative anatomy

One of the first scholar to study comparative anatomy, Petrus Camper demonstrated the principle of correlation in all organisms by the mechanical exercise he called a "metamorphosis". In his 1778 lecture, "On the Points of Similarity between the Human Species, Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fish; with Rules for Drawing, founded on this Similarity," he metamorphosed a horse into a human being, thus showing the similarity between all vertebrates. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772-1884) theorized this in 1795 as the "unity of organic composition," the influence of which is perceptible in all his subsequent writings; nature, he observed, presents us with only one plan of construction, the same in principle, but varied in its accessory parts. Camper's metamorphoses which demonstrated this "unity of Plan" greatly impressed Diderot and Goethe. In 1923 and 1939 some Dutch authors suggested that Camper foreshadowed Goethe's famous idea of "type" — a common structural pattern in some manner ^[1]

"Facial angle"

Petrus Camper is also known for his theory of the "facial angle" in connection with intelligence. The measuring of the facial angle claimed to determine intelligence among various species of animals. According to this technique, an angle is formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the nostril to the ear; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper jawbone to the most prominent part of the forehead. Measuring this angle was thought to determine the intelligence of animals and human beings. One of the founder of scientific racism theories, he claimed that antique statues presented an angle of 90°, Europeans of 80°, Black people of 70° and the orangutan of 58°, thus displaying a hierarchic view of mankind, based on a decadent conception of history. These scientific racist researchs were continued by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844) and Paul Broca (1824-1880).

Legacy

Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) praised his "genius eye" but criticized him for keeping himself to simple sketches (Camper porta, pour ainsi dire en passant, le coup d'œil du génie sur une foule d'objets intéressants, mais presque tous ses travaux ne furent que des ébauches). Petrus Camper's main works quoted by the 19th century Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie of Marie-Nicolas Bouillet and Alexis Chassang were:

Démonstrations anatomicx-pathologicœ, Amsterdam, 1760-1762 ;
Dissertation sur les différences des traits du visage ;
Discours sur l'art de juger les passions de l'homme par les traits de son visage ;
Dissertation sur les variétés naturelles de l'espèce humaine.

Hendrik Jansen published a translation of Camper's "Works on natural history" in 1803 in three in-octavo volumes.

Works

On the Best Form of Shoe
On the Points of Similarity between the Human Species, Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fish; with Rules for Drawing, founded on this Similarity (1778)
etc.

References

^ See Miriam Claude Meijer, ""Petrus Camper's Protean Performances: The Metamorphoses" here (with a drawing of Camper's animated metamorphose) - URL accessed on February 28, 2007 Template:En icon

Source

Parts of the source used included the entry « Petrus Camper », in the 1878 edition of Marie-Nicolas Bouillet and Alexis Chassang (dir.), Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie, 1878

@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 A brillant alumni, he studied sciences, philosophy and drawing. His professors included [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] (1669-1721) and
-[[Willem Jacob 's Gravesande]] (1688-1742) for physics and mathematics, [[Herman Boerhaave]] (1668-1738) and [[Hieronym David Gaubius]] (1705-1780) for medicine. Petrus Camper became doctor in medicine at 24. He then traveled to [[Prussia]], [[England]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. He held sundry professorships, being first named professor of philosophy, anatomy and [[surgery]] in 1750 in the University of [[Franeker]]. Starting in 1755, he resided in Amsterdam where he occupied a chair of anatomy and surgery, later completed by a medicine chair. He retired five years later to dedicate himself to scientifical research. But he finally chose, three years later, to accept the chair of anatomy, surgery and botancis at the University of [[Groninguen (city)|Groninguen]] before retiring in 1773.
+[[Willem Jacob 's Gravesande]] (1688-1742) for physics and mathematics, [[Herman Boerhaave]] (1668-1738) and [[Hieronym David Gaubius]] (1705-1780) for medicine. Petrus Camper became doctor in medicine at 24. He then traveled to [[Prussia]], [[England]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. He held sundry professorships, being first named professor of philosophy, anatomy and [[surgery]] in 1750 in the University of [[Franeker]]. Starting in 1755, he resided in Amsterdam where he occupied a chair of anatomy and surgery, later completed by a medicine chair. He retired five years later to dedicate himself to scientifical research. But he finally chose, three years later, to accept the chair of anatomy, surgery and botancis at the University of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] before retiring in 1773.
 Among his many works, he studied [[osteology]] of birds and discovered the presence of air in the inner cavities of birds' skeletons. He also interested himself to the anatomy of the [[orangutan]], demonstrating against contemporary theories that it was a different specie from the [[human specie|human being]], and not simply a "degenerate" type of human. Petrus Camper published memoirs on hearing of fishes, the best form of shoes, [[rabid]]s, building of [[dike (construction)|dike]]s, etc.
+== Comparative anatomy ==
+One of the first scholar to study [[comparative anatomy]], Petrus Camper demonstrated the principle of correlation in all organisms by the mechanical exercise he called a "metamorphosis". In his 1778 lecture, "On the Points of Similarity between the Human Species, Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fish; with Rules for Drawing, founded on this Similarity," he metamorphosed a horse into a human being, thus showing the similarity between all vertebrates. [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]] (1772-1884) theorized this in 1795 as the "unity of organic composition," the influence of which is perceptible in all his subsequent writings; nature, he observed, presents us with only one plan of construction, the same in principle, but varied in its accessory parts. Camper's metamorphoses which demonstrated this "unity of Plan" greatly impressed [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] and [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe|Goethe]]. In 1923 and 1939 some Dutch authors suggested that Camper foreshadowed Goethe's famous idea of "type" — a common structural pattern in some manner <ref> See Miriam Claude Meijer, ""Petrus Camper's Protean Performances: The Metamorphoses" [http://www.geocities.com/paris/chateau/6110/camper1.htm here] (with a drawing of Camper's animated metamorphose) - URL accessed on February 28, 2007 {{en icon}} </ref>
 == "Facial angle" ==
@@ Line 26: / Line 30: @@
 == Works ==
 * ''On the Best Form of Shoe''
+* ''On the Points of Similarity between the Human Species, Quadrupeds, Birds, and Fish; with Rules for Drawing, founded on this Similarity'' (1778)
+*etc.
+== References ==
+{{reflist}}
 == Source ==
 *Parts of the source used included the entry « Petrus Camper », in the 1878 edition of [[Marie-Nicolas Bouillet]] and [[Alexis Chassang]] (dir.), ''Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie'', 1878