Don McLean and Aristotelian physics: Difference between pages

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[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 013.jpg|thumb|right|250px| The famous philosopher Aristotle, depicted in a painting by [[Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn]]]]
{{refimprove|date=January 2008}}
The Greek [[philosopher]] [[Aristotle]] ([[384 BC]] – [[322 BC]]) developed many '''theories on the nature of [[physics]]''' that are completely different from what are now understood as the [[laws of physics]]. These involved what Aristotle described as the [[Classical element|four elements]], as well as a variety of principles, most of which modern science has now disproved, and which provide no significant roots to any area of modern physics.


He spoke intimately of the relation between these elements, of their dynamics, and how they impacted on the earth, and were, in many cases, attracted to each other by unspecified forces. He also taught miscellaneous other aspects of his physics model, including his widely believed theory relating to moving energy.
{{Cleanup|date=June 2007}}


== Aristotelian physics ==
{{dablink|For other people with similar names see [[Don MacLean]].}}
Aristotle taught that the [[classical element|elements]] that composed the [[Earth]] were different from those that made up the heavens and [[Outer space]].<ref name="utk">{{Cite web|url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/aristotle_dynamics.html|title=Physics of Aristotel vs. The Physics of Galileo|accessmonthday=26 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
{{Infobox musical artist
He also taught that [[dynamics]] were mostly determined by the characteristics and nature of the [[substance]]s that the object that was moving was composed of.<ref name="utk" />
| Img = Don McLean.jpg
| Img_capt = Don McLean at a concert, 2008
| Name = Don McLean
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Donald McLean
| Born = {{Birth date and age|1945|10|2}}
| Instrument = [[singer|Vocals]], [[Guitar]]<br>[[Piano]]
| Genre = [[Folk music|Folk]], [[Folk rock]]
| Occupation = [[Singer-songwriter]], [[Musician]]
| Years_active = 1970 - present
| URL = http://www.don-mclean.com/
}}
'''Donald McLean''' (born [[October 2]] [[1945]] in [[New Rochelle, New York]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer-songwriter]]. He is most famous for his 1971 album ''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]]'', containing the renowned [[songs]] ''[[American Pie]]'' and ''[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]''.<ref> {{cite book |title=The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs |last=Howard |first=Alan |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Lulu Press Inc. |location= |isbn=978-1430306825 |pages=420 }}</ref>


==Musical Roots==
=== Elements ===
Aristotle believed that there were four main [[classical element|elements]] or [[compounds]] that made up the [[Earth]]: [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[air (classical element)|air]], [[water (classical element)|water]] and [[fire (classical element)|fire]].{{Ref_label|A|a|none}}<ref name="edu">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hep.fsu.edu/~wahl/Quarknet/pepperlect/aristogalnewt.pdf|title=www.hep.fsu.edu|accessmonthday=26 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
He also held that all the heavens, and every particle of [[matter]] in the [[universe]], was formed out of another, fifth element he called '[[aether]]' (also transliterated as "ether")<ref name="edu" />, which was supposedly weightless and "incorruptible".<ref name="edu" /> Aether was also known by the name 'quintessence' - literally, "fifth substance".<ref name="ari">{{Cite web|url=http://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes/p10/aristotle-physics.html|title=Aristotel's physics|accessmonthday=27 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
[[Image:Aristotle Physica page 1.png|thumb|left|200px|Page taken from the 1837 edition of Aristotle's ''Physics'', a book written about a variety of subjects including philosophy and physics]]


Heavy substances such as [[iron]] and metals were considered to be primarily consisting of the "element" of earth, with a limited amount of [[matter]] from the other elements. Other, less heavy and/or dense objects were thought to be less earthy, and composed of a greater mixture of the other elements.<ref name="ari" />
As a young teenager, McLean became interested in [[folk music]] particularly [[the Weavers]]' 1955 recording "[[Live at Carnegie Hall]]." By age 16 he had bought his first guitar (a [[Harmony guitars|Harmony]] acoustic [[archtop]] with a sunburst finish) and begun making contacts in the music business, becoming friends with folk singer [[Erik Darling]], a member of the Weavers. McLean recorded his first studio sessions (with singer [[Lisa Kindred]]) while still in prep school.
[[Human]]s were shaped with all of the substances, with the exception of ether, but the relative proportion of elements was unique to each person, and there was no standard amount of each within the human body.<ref name="ari" />


=== Dynamics ===
McLean graduated from [[Iona Preparatory School]] in 1963, and briefly attended [[Villanova University]], dropping out after four months. While at Villanova he became friends with singer/songwriter [[Jim Croce]].


Aristotle held that each of the four worldly elements would each seek each other and cluster together, and that this seeking of other similar elements would have to be hindered to be stopped, as it was as natural as two [[magnet]]s rejecting each other, or rain falling from the clouds. For instance, because [[smoke]] was mainly air, it would rise to meet the air in the sky. He also taught that objects and matter could only move so long as a form of [[energy]] was forcing it in a given direction.<ref name="utk2">{{Cite web|url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/aristotle_dynamics.html|title=Physics of Aristotle vs. The Physics of Galileo|accessmonthday=28 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref> Therefore, if all the applied forces on Earth were removed, such as the throwing of a rock, then nothing could move.<ref name="utk2">{{Cite web|url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/aristotle_dynamics.html|title=Physics of Aristotle vs. The Physics of Galileo|accessmonthday=28 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref> This idea had flaws that were visible even at the time the concept was formulated. Many people questioned how an object such as an [[arrow]] could continue to move forward after it had left the power released by the string, and continue to sail forward. Aristotle proposed an idea that arrows, etc., created a type of [[vacuum]] behind them that forced them forward.<ref name="utk2" />, which was consistent with his interpretation of motion as an interaction of the moving object and the medium through which it moves. Since the turbulent motion of air around an arrow is very complicated, and still not fully understood, any discrepancy with observation could be swept under the rug.
After leaving Villanova, Mclean became associated with famed folk music agent [[Harold Leventhal]], and for the next six years performed at venues and events including [[the Bitter End]] and [[the Gaslight Cafe]] in New York, the [[Newport Folk Festival]], the Cellar Door in [[Washington, D.C.]], and [[the Troubadour]] in Los Angeles. Concurrently, McLean attended night school at [[Iona College (New York)|Iona College]] and received a [[Bachelors degree]] in [[Business Administration]] in 1968.


Because Aristotle placed the medium at the center of his theory of motion, he could not make sense of the notion of a void central to the atomic theory of [[Democritus]]. A void is a place free of anything, and since Aristotle asserted that motion required a medium, he came to the conclusion that a void was an incomprehensible idea. Aristotle's believed that the motion of an object is inversely proportional to the density of the medium. the more tenuous a medium is, the faster the motion. If an object is moving in void, Aristotle believed that it would be moving infinitely fast, so that matter would instantly fill up any void at the moment it formed.<ref>Land, Helen ''The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements'' (1998)</ref>
In 1968, with the help of a grant from the [[New York State Council on the Arts]], McLean began reaching a wider public, with visits to towns up and down the [[Hudson River]]. He learned the art of performing from his friend and mentor [[Pete Seeger]]. McLean accompanied Seeger on his [[Sloop Clearwater|Clearwater]] boat trip up the Hudson River in 1969 to protest environmental pollution in the river. During this time McLean wrote songs that would appear on his first album, ''[[Tapestry (Don McLean album)|Tapestry]].''


=== Gravity ===
''Tapestry'' was released in 1970 on [[Capitol records]] to little notice outside the folk community. In late 1971, McLean's second album, ''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]],'' was released and became a major success, spawning two No. 1 hits in the title song and "[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]." ''American Pie'''s success made McLean an international star and renewed interest in his first album, which charted more than two years after its initial release.


The '''Aristotelian theory of gravity''' was a theory that stated that all bodies move towards their natural place. For some objects, [[Aristotle]] claimed the natural place to be the center of the [[earth]], wherefore they fall towards it. For other objects, the natural place is the heavenly spheres, wherefore gases, steam for example, move away from the centre of the earth and towards heaven and to the [[moon]]. The [[speed]] of this [[Motion (physics)|motion]] was thought to be proportional to the [[mass]] of the object.
McLean continued to tour and release albums throughout the 1970s and 1980s but never replicated the success of ''American Pie.''


==Medieval criticisms==
McLean had a series of conflicts with ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' writer [[Andy Breckman]], starting when Breckman opened for McLean on tour in 1980.<ref>[http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2007/10/annoy_don_mclean_win_200.html "Annoy Don McLean, Win $200!"] Tayt Harlin, ''New York Magazine,'' October 31, 2007</ref> Breckman and McLean have penned competing renditions of the origins of this feud, both of which are available online.<ref>[http://www.wfmu.org/LCD/andy/americanpie.html Don McLean vs. Andy Breckman] on the WFMU website</ref>
{{main|Islamic physics|Theory of impetus}}


During the [[Middle Ages]], the Aristotelian theory of gravity was first criticized and/or modified by [[John Philoponus]] and later by [[Islamic physics|Muslim physicists]]. [[Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir]] (800-873) of the [[Banū Mūsā]] wrote the ''Astral Motion'' and ''The Force of Attraction'', where he discovered that there was a [[force]] of [[Gravitation|attraction]] between [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]],<ref>K. A. Waheed (1978). ''Islam and The Origins of Modern Science'', p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.</ref> foreshadowing [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]].<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.</ref>
==Songs==
===American Pie===
{{main|American Pie}}


[[Ibn al-Haytham]] (965-1039) also discussed the theory of attraction between [[mass]]es, and it seems that he was aware of the [[Magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]] and he discovered that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the [[Physical law|laws of physics]]".<ref>Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref> [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048) was the first to realize that [[acceleration]] is connected with non-uniform motion, part of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref> During his debate with [[Avicenna]], al-Biruni also criticized the Aristotelian theory of gravity for denying the existence of [[wiktionary:levity|levity]] or gravity in the [[celestial sphere]]s and for its notion of [[circular motion]] being an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|innate property]] of the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]].<ref name=Berjak>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.</ref>
Don McLean's most famous composition, ''[[American Pie]]'', is a sprawling, impressionistic ballad inspired partly by the deaths of [[Buddy Holly]], [[Ritchie Valens]] and J. P. Richardson ([[The Big Bopper]]) in a plane crash in 1959. The song would popularize the expression [[The Day the Music Died]] in reference to this event. McLean has stated that the lyrics are also somewhat autobiographical and present an abstract story of his life from the mid-1950s until the time he wrote the song in the late 1960s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.don-mclean.com/americanpie.asp|title=Don McLean's American Pie|publisher=Don McLean Online - The Official Website}}</ref>


In 1121, [[al-Khazini]], in ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', proposed that the gravity and [[gravitational potential energy]] of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth.<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 614-642 [621-622]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi]] (1080-1165) wrote a critique of Aristotelian physics entitled ''al-Mu'tabar'', where he negated Aristotle's idea that a constant [[force]] produces uniform motion, as he realized that a force applied continuously produces [[acceleration]], a fundamental law of [[classical mechanics]] and an early foreshadowing of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
The song was recorded on 26th May 1971 and a month later received its first radio airplay on New York’s WNEW-FM and WPLJ-FM to mark the closing of The Fillmore East, a famous New York concert hall. "American Pie" reached number one on the U.S. ''[[Billboard magazine]]'' charts for four weeks in 1971, and remains McLean's most successful single release. It is also the longest song to reach No. 1 with a running time of 8:36.
| last = [[Shlomo Pines]]
| title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah
| encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]
| volume = 1
| pages = 26-28
| publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons
| location = New York
| date = 1970
| isbn = 0684101149
}}
<br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of [[velocity]].<ref>A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref>


In the 14th century, [[Jean Buridan]] developed the [[theory of impetus]], based on [[Avicenna]]'s theory of ''mayl'' and the work of [[John Philoponus]], as an alternative to the Aristotelian theory of motion. The theory of impetus was a precursor to the concepts of [[inertia]] and [[momentum]] in classical mechanics.
Nearly 30 years later, pop singer [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] released a truncated dance-pop [[cover version]] of the song. In response, Don McLean said: "I have received many gifts from God but this is the first time I have ever received a gift from a goddess.”


In the 16th century, [[al-Birjandi]] discussed the possibility of the [[Earth's rotation]]. In his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were rotating, he developed a hypothesis similar to [[Galileo Galilei]]'s notion of "circular [[inertia]]",<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001b|pp=63-4}}</ref> which he described in the following [[Experiment|observational test]]:
In 2001 “American Pie” was voted No. 5 in a poll of the 365 “[[Songs of the Century]]” compiled by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] and the National Endowment for the Arts.


{{quote|"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (''sath'') of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (''tajriba''). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (''hissi'') horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a|pp=152-3}}</ref>}}
The top five were:
“[[Over the Rainbow]]” by [[Judy Garland]],
“[[White Christmas]]” by [[Bing Crosby]],
“[[This Land Is Your Land]]” by [[Woody Guthrie]],
“[[Respect]]” by [[Aretha Franklin]]
and “[[American Pie]]” by Don McLean.


== Life and death of Aristotelian physics ==
===Other songs===


The reign of Aristotelian notions of physics lasted for almost two millennia, and provide the earliest known speculative theories of physics. After the work of [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhacen]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ibn Bajjah|Avempace]], [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi|al-Baghdadi]], [[Jean Buridan]], [[Galileo]], [[Descartes]], [[Isaac Newton]], and many others, it became generally accepted that Aristotelian physics were not correct or viable.<ref name="ari2">{{Cite web|url=http://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes/p10/aristotle-physics.html|title=Aristotel's physics|accessmonthday=28 March|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
McLean's other well-known songs include:
Despite this, Aristotle's physics were able to live into the late [[seventeenth century]], and perhaps longer, as they were still taught in universities at the time. Aristotle's model of physics was the main academic impediment for the creation of the science of physics long after Aristotle's death.
*''[[And I Love You So (song)|And I Love You So]]'', covered by [[Elvis Presley]], a [[1973 in music|1973 hit]] for [[Perry Como]]
*''[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]'', a tribute to the 19th century Dutch painter, [[Vincent van Gogh]]
*''Castles in the Air'', which McLean recorded twice -- his 1981 re-recording was a top-40 hit
*''Wonderful Baby'', a tribute to [[Fred Astaire]] that Astaire himself recorded
*''Superman's Ghost'', a tribute to [[George Reeves]], who portrayed [[Superman]] on television in the 1950s


In [[Europe]], [[Aristotle]]'s theory was first convincingly discredited by the work of [[Galileo Galilei]]. Using a [[telescope]], Galileo observed that the moon was not entirely smooth, but had craters and mountains, contradicting the Aristotelian idea of an incorruptible perfectly smooth moon. Galileo also criticized this notion theoretically &ndash; a perfectly smooth moon would reflect light unevenly like a shiny billiard ball, so that the edges of the moon's disk would have a different brightness than the point where a tangent plane reflects sunlight directly to the eye. A rough moon reflects in all directions equally, leading to a disk of approximately equal brightness which is what is observed <ref> Galileo Galilei ''Dialog On the Two Principle Systems of the World''</ref>. Galileo also observed that [[Jupiter]] has [[Galilean moons|moons]], objects which revolve around a body other than the Earth. He noted the [[phases]] of Venus, convincingly demonstrating that Venus, and by implication Mercury, travels around the sun, not the Earth.
The album ''American Pie'' features a version of [[Psalm 137]], entitled ''Babylon'', and arranged by Don McLean and Lee Hays (of The Weavers). [[Boney M]] would have a number one hit in the UK with this song in 1978 under the title ''[[Rivers of Babylon]]'', although the two renditions are so different it is not immediately noticeable that they are versions of the same song, originally composed by the reggae band [[The Melodians]].


According to legend, Galileo dropped balls of various [[Density|densities]] from the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa|Tower of Pisa]] and found that lighter and heavier ones fell at almost the same speed. In fact, he did quantitative experiments with balls rolling down an inclined plane, a form of falling that is slow enough to be measured without advanced instruments.
In 1980, McLean had an international number one hit with a cover of the [[Roy Orbison]] classic, ''[[Crying (song)|Crying]]''. Only following the record's success overseas was it released in the U.S., becoming a top 10 hit in 1981. Orbison himself once described McLean as "the voice of the century", and a subsequent re-recording of the song saw Orbison incorporate elements of McLean's version.


Since Aristotle did not believe that motion could be described without a surrounding medium, he couldn't treat [[air resistance]] as a complicating factor. A heavier body falls faster than a lighter one of the same shape in a dense medium like water, and this led Aristotle to speculate that the rate of falling is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the density of the medium. From his experience with objects falling in water, he concluded that water is approximately ten times denser than air. By weighing a volume of compressed air, Galileo showed that this overestimates the density of air by a factor of forty<ref> Galileo Galilei ''Two New Sciences''</ref>. From his experiments with inclined planes, he concluded that all bodies fall at the same rate neglecting friction.
Another hit song associated with Don McLean (though never recorded by him) is ''[[Killing Me Softly with His Song]]'' which was written ''about'' McLean after [[Lori Lieberman]], also a singer/songwriter, saw him singing his composition ''Empty Chairs'' in concert. Afterwards, Lieberman wrote a poem titled ''Killing me Softly with his Blues'' which became the basis for the song written by Norman Gimbel and Charles Fox and recorded by [[Roberta Flack]] (and later covered by [[The Fugees]]).


Galileo also advanced a theoretical argument to support his conclusion. He asked if two bodies of different masses and different rates of fall are tied by a string, does the combined system fall faster because it is now more massive, or does the lighter body in its slower fall hold back the heavier body? The only convincing answer is neither: all the systems fall at the same rate<ref> Galileo ''Dialog Concerning the Two Principal Systems of the World''</ref>.
===Later work===


Followers of Aristotle were aware that the motion of falling bodies was not uniform, but picked up speed with time. Since time is an abstract quantity, the [[peripatetic]]s postulated that the speed was proportional to the distance. Galileo established experimentally that the speed is proportional to the time, but he also gave a theoretical argument that the speed could not possibly be proportional to the distance. In modern terms, if the rate of fall is proportional to the distance, the differential equation for the distance y travelled after time t is
In 1991, Don McLean returned to the UK top 20 with a re-issue of "[[American Pie]]".
:<math>
{dy\over dt} = y
</math>
with the condition that <math>y(0)=0</math>. Galileo demonstrated that this system would stay at <math>y=0</math> for all time. If a perturbation set the system into motion somehow, the object would pick up speed exponentially in time, not quadratically <ref> Galileo ''Two New Sciences''</ref>.


On the surface of the [[moon]], [[David Scott]] famously repeated Galileo's experiment by dropping a feather and a hammer from each hand at the same time. In the absence of a substantial [[atmosphere]], the two objects fell and hit the moon's surface at the same time.
In 2004, Don McLean was inaugurated into the [[Songwriters Hall of Fame]].


With his [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|law of universal gravitation]] [[Isaac Newton]] was the first to mathematically codify a correct theory of gravity. In this theory, any mass is attracted to any other mass by a force which decreases as the inverse square of their distance. In 1915, Newton's theory was modified, but not invalidated, by [[Albert Einstein]], who developed a new picture of [[gravitation]], in the framework of his [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]]. See ''[[gravity]]'' for a much more detailed complete discussion.
In 2007, the biography ''The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs'' was published. Biographer Alan Howard conducted extensive interviews for this, the only book-length biography of the often reclusive McLean to date.


==Discography==
== See also ==
*[[Physics (Aristotle)]]
===Albums===
{| class="wikitable" width=50%
!align="left" valign="top" width="40"|Year
!align="left" valign="top"|Album
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1970
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Tapestry (Don McLean album)|Tapestry]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1971
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1972
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Don McLean (album)|Don McLean]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1973
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Playin Favorites|Playin' Favorites]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1974
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Homeless Brother]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1976
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Solo (Don McLean album)|Solo (LIVE)]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1977
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Prime Time (Don McLean album)|Prime Time]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1978
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Chain Lightning (album)|Chain Lightning]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1981
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Believers (album)|Believers]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1982
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Dominion (Don McLean album)|Dominion (LIVE)]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1987
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Love Tracks]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1989
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[For the Memories Vols I & II]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1989
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[And I Love You So (album)|And I Love You So (UK Release)]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1990
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Headroom (Don McLean album)|Headroom]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1991
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Christmas (Don McLean album)|Christmas]]''
|-kyrpä
|align="center" valign="middle"|1995
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[The River of Love]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1997
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Christmas Dreams]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2001
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Sings Marty Robbins]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2001
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Starry Starry Night (album)|Starry Starry Night (LIVE)]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2003
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[You've Got to Share Songs for Children Album|You've Got to Share: Songs for Children]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2003
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[The Western Album]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2004
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Christmas Time (Don McLean album)|Christmas Time!]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2005
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Rearview Mirror An American Musical Journey|Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey]]''
|}


===Compilations===
== Notes ==
{{refbegin}}
{| class="wikitable" width=50%
'''a''' {{Note_label|A|a|none}} The term 'earth' refers to a pure element that Aristotle theorized, not the actual planet Earth, which is known to be composed of a large number of elements. The same applies to the other terminologies used. 'Air' refers to a pure element of air, opposed to the air that is found in the Earth's atmosphere, which is, again, made up of many elements.
!align="left" valign="top" width="40"|Year
{{refend}}
!align="left" valign="top"|Album
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1980
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[The Very Best of Don McLean]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|1992
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Favorites and Rarities]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2003
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[Legendary Songs of Don McLean]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2007
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[The Legendary Don McLean]]''
|-
|align="center" valign="middle"|2008
|align="left" valign="middle"|''[[American Pie & Other Hits]]''
|}


===Singles===
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
USA
#1 - American Pie (1971)
#5 - Crying (1981)
#12 - Vincent (1972)
#21 - Dreidel (1972)
#23 - Since I Don't Have You (1981)
#36 - Castles In The Air (1981)
#58 - If We Try (1973)
#83 - It's Just The Sun (1981)
#93 - Wonderful Baby (1975)
#73 - He's Got You (1987)
#49 - You Can't Blame the Train (1987)


== References ==
UK
#2 - American Pie (1972)
#1 - Vincent (1972)
#38 - Everday (1973)
#1 - Crying (1980)
#12 - American Pie (1991)


*{{Harvard reference
===Rarities===
|last=Ragep
{| class="wikitable" width=50%
|first=F. Jamil
!align="left" valign="top" width="40"|Year
|year=2001a
!align="left" valign="top"|Title
|title=Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context
!align="left" valign="top"|Additional information
|journal=Science in Context
|-
|volume=14
|align="center" valign="middle"|1982
|issue=1-2
|align="center" valign="middle"|"The Flight of Dragons"
|pages=145–163
|align="left" valign="middle"|This song was recorded for the film ''[[The Flight of Dragons]]'' in the early 1980s.
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|}
}}
*{{Harvard reference
|last=Ragep
|first=F. Jamil
|year=2001b
|title=Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science
|journal=Osiris, 2nd Series
|volume=16
|issue=Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions
|pages=49-64 & 66-71
}}


[[Category:Aristotle|Physics]]
==References==
[[Category:History of physics]]
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Revision as of 01:47, 10 October 2008

The famous philosopher Aristotle, depicted in a painting by Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of physics that are completely different from what are now understood as the laws of physics. These involved what Aristotle described as the four elements, as well as a variety of principles, most of which modern science has now disproved, and which provide no significant roots to any area of modern physics.

He spoke intimately of the relation between these elements, of their dynamics, and how they impacted on the earth, and were, in many cases, attracted to each other by unspecified forces. He also taught miscellaneous other aspects of his physics model, including his widely believed theory relating to moving energy.

Aristotelian physics

Aristotle taught that the elements that composed the Earth were different from those that made up the heavens and Outer space.[1] He also taught that dynamics were mostly determined by the characteristics and nature of the substances that the object that was moving was composed of.[1]

Elements

Aristotle believed that there were four main elements or compounds that made up the Earth: earth, air, water and fire.[a][2] He also held that all the heavens, and every particle of matter in the universe, was formed out of another, fifth element he called 'aether' (also transliterated as "ether")[2], which was supposedly weightless and "incorruptible".[2] Aether was also known by the name 'quintessence' - literally, "fifth substance".[3]

Page taken from the 1837 edition of Aristotle's Physics, a book written about a variety of subjects including philosophy and physics

Heavy substances such as iron and metals were considered to be primarily consisting of the "element" of earth, with a limited amount of matter from the other elements. Other, less heavy and/or dense objects were thought to be less earthy, and composed of a greater mixture of the other elements.[3] Humans were shaped with all of the substances, with the exception of ether, but the relative proportion of elements was unique to each person, and there was no standard amount of each within the human body.[3]

Dynamics

Aristotle held that each of the four worldly elements would each seek each other and cluster together, and that this seeking of other similar elements would have to be hindered to be stopped, as it was as natural as two magnets rejecting each other, or rain falling from the clouds. For instance, because smoke was mainly air, it would rise to meet the air in the sky. He also taught that objects and matter could only move so long as a form of energy was forcing it in a given direction.[4] Therefore, if all the applied forces on Earth were removed, such as the throwing of a rock, then nothing could move.[4] This idea had flaws that were visible even at the time the concept was formulated. Many people questioned how an object such as an arrow could continue to move forward after it had left the power released by the string, and continue to sail forward. Aristotle proposed an idea that arrows, etc., created a type of vacuum behind them that forced them forward.[4], which was consistent with his interpretation of motion as an interaction of the moving object and the medium through which it moves. Since the turbulent motion of air around an arrow is very complicated, and still not fully understood, any discrepancy with observation could be swept under the rug.

Because Aristotle placed the medium at the center of his theory of motion, he could not make sense of the notion of a void central to the atomic theory of Democritus. A void is a place free of anything, and since Aristotle asserted that motion required a medium, he came to the conclusion that a void was an incomprehensible idea. Aristotle's believed that the motion of an object is inversely proportional to the density of the medium. the more tenuous a medium is, the faster the motion. If an object is moving in void, Aristotle believed that it would be moving infinitely fast, so that matter would instantly fill up any void at the moment it formed.[5]

Gravity

The Aristotelian theory of gravity was a theory that stated that all bodies move towards their natural place. For some objects, Aristotle claimed the natural place to be the center of the earth, wherefore they fall towards it. For other objects, the natural place is the heavenly spheres, wherefore gases, steam for example, move away from the centre of the earth and towards heaven and to the moon. The speed of this motion was thought to be proportional to the mass of the object.

Medieval criticisms

Main articles: Islamic physics and Theory of impetus

During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian theory of gravity was first criticized and/or modified by John Philoponus and later by Muslim physicists. Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (800-873) of the Banū Mūsā wrote the Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction, where he discovered that there was a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,[6] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation.[7]

Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) also discussed the theory of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity and he discovered that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics".[8] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, part of Newton's second law of motion.[9] During his debate with Avicenna, al-Biruni also criticized the Aristotelian theory of gravity for denying the existence of levity or gravity in the celestial spheres and for its notion of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies.[10]

In 1121, al-Khazini, in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, proposed that the gravity and gravitational potential energy of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth.[11] Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (1080-1165) wrote a critique of Aristotelian physics entitled al-Mu'tabar, where he negated Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces uniform motion, as he realized that a force applied continuously produces acceleration, a fundamental law of classical mechanics and an early foreshadowing of Newton's second law of motion.[12] Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of velocity.[13]

In the 14th century, Jean Buridan developed the theory of impetus, based on Avicenna's theory of mayl and the work of John Philoponus, as an alternative to the Aristotelian theory of motion. The theory of impetus was a precursor to the concepts of inertia and momentum in classical mechanics.

In the 16th century, al-Birjandi discussed the possibility of the Earth's rotation. In his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were rotating, he developed a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia",[14] which he described in the following observational test:

"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (sath) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (tajriba). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (hissi) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."[15]

Life and death of Aristotelian physics

The reign of Aristotelian notions of physics lasted for almost two millennia, and provide the earliest known speculative theories of physics. After the work of Alhacen, Avicenna, Avempace, al-Baghdadi, Jean Buridan, Galileo, Descartes, Isaac Newton, and many others, it became generally accepted that Aristotelian physics were not correct or viable.[16] Despite this, Aristotle's physics were able to live into the late seventeenth century, and perhaps longer, as they were still taught in universities at the time. Aristotle's model of physics was the main academic impediment for the creation of the science of physics long after Aristotle's death.

In Europe, Aristotle's theory was first convincingly discredited by the work of Galileo Galilei. Using a telescope, Galileo observed that the moon was not entirely smooth, but had craters and mountains, contradicting the Aristotelian idea of an incorruptible perfectly smooth moon. Galileo also criticized this notion theoretically – a perfectly smooth moon would reflect light unevenly like a shiny billiard ball, so that the edges of the moon's disk would have a different brightness than the point where a tangent plane reflects sunlight directly to the eye. A rough moon reflects in all directions equally, leading to a disk of approximately equal brightness which is what is observed [17]. Galileo also observed that Jupiter has moons, objects which revolve around a body other than the Earth. He noted the phases of Venus, convincingly demonstrating that Venus, and by implication Mercury, travels around the sun, not the Earth.

According to legend, Galileo dropped balls of various densities from the Tower of Pisa and found that lighter and heavier ones fell at almost the same speed. In fact, he did quantitative experiments with balls rolling down an inclined plane, a form of falling that is slow enough to be measured without advanced instruments.

Since Aristotle did not believe that motion could be described without a surrounding medium, he couldn't treat air resistance as a complicating factor. A heavier body falls faster than a lighter one of the same shape in a dense medium like water, and this led Aristotle to speculate that the rate of falling is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the density of the medium. From his experience with objects falling in water, he concluded that water is approximately ten times denser than air. By weighing a volume of compressed air, Galileo showed that this overestimates the density of air by a factor of forty[18]. From his experiments with inclined planes, he concluded that all bodies fall at the same rate neglecting friction.

Galileo also advanced a theoretical argument to support his conclusion. He asked if two bodies of different masses and different rates of fall are tied by a string, does the combined system fall faster because it is now more massive, or does the lighter body in its slower fall hold back the heavier body? The only convincing answer is neither: all the systems fall at the same rate[19].

Followers of Aristotle were aware that the motion of falling bodies was not uniform, but picked up speed with time. Since time is an abstract quantity, the peripatetics postulated that the speed was proportional to the distance. Galileo established experimentally that the speed is proportional to the time, but he also gave a theoretical argument that the speed could not possibly be proportional to the distance. In modern terms, if the rate of fall is proportional to the distance, the differential equation for the distance y travelled after time t is

with the condition that . Galileo demonstrated that this system would stay at for all time. If a perturbation set the system into motion somehow, the object would pick up speed exponentially in time, not quadratically [20].

On the surface of the moon, David Scott famously repeated Galileo's experiment by dropping a feather and a hammer from each hand at the same time. In the absence of a substantial atmosphere, the two objects fell and hit the moon's surface at the same time.

With his law of universal gravitation Isaac Newton was the first to mathematically codify a correct theory of gravity. In this theory, any mass is attracted to any other mass by a force which decreases as the inverse square of their distance. In 1915, Newton's theory was modified, but not invalidated, by Albert Einstein, who developed a new picture of gravitation, in the framework of his general theory of relativity. See gravity for a much more detailed complete discussion.

See also

Notes

a ^ The term 'earth' refers to a pure element that Aristotle theorized, not the actual planet Earth, which is known to be composed of a large number of elements. The same applies to the other terminologies used. 'Air' refers to a pure element of air, opposed to the air that is found in the Earth's atmosphere, which is, again, made up of many elements.

Notes

  1. ^ a b "Physics of Aristotel vs. The Physics of Galileo". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b c "www.hep.fsu.edu" (PDF). {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b c "Aristotel's physics". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b c "Physics of Aristotle vs. The Physics of Galileo". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998)
  6. ^ K. A. Waheed (1978). Islam and The Origins of Modern Science, p. 27. Islamic Publication Ltd., Lahore.
  7. ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191.
  8. ^ Duhem, Pierre (1908, 1969). To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
  9. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Al-Biruni", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
  10. ^ Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, June 2003.
  11. ^ Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 614-642 [621-622]. Routledge, London and New York.
  12. ^ Shlomo Pines (1970). "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 26–28. ISBN 0684101149.
    (cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].)
  13. ^ A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo 2, p. 67.
  14. ^ (Ragep 2001b, pp. 63–4)
  15. ^ (Ragep 2001a, pp. 152–3)
  16. ^ "Aristotel's physics". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Galileo Galilei Dialog On the Two Principle Systems of the World
  18. ^ Galileo Galilei Two New Sciences
  19. ^ Galileo Dialog Concerning the Two Principal Systems of the World
  20. ^ Galileo Two New Sciences

References

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