Frank Stagg (theologian)

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Christian views (attitudes and beliefs) about women vary considerably today and have varied even more throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived.

There are differing interpretations of the Bible, differing traditions of various churches and differing cultures in which these churches exist. Some groups express an official view of gender expectations within their congregations and within the world, while others do not.

The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as prescribing separate gender roles, with women often being excluded from church leadership. For the first 19 or 20 centuries after the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ (according to Christian belief), institutionalized Christianity was very unfavorable to women. A gender-based hierarchy, claimed by Complementarians to be biblical, has been constructed to place woman under man's authority in the church, in marriage, and often elsewhere.

Only since the 1970s have more moderate views emerged. Today they are known as the Christian Egalitarian and Complementarian views of women and men:

  • Christian Egalitarians' interpretation of scripture bring them to the conclusion that the manner and teaching of Jesus, affirmed by the Apostle Paul, abolished gender-specific roles in either the church or marriage. One verse has been seen as a fanfare of freedom by what historically have been three oppressed groups: racial minorities, slaves, and women. This verse has been called by authors the "Magna Carta of spiritual emancipation."[1]

There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Galatians 3:28)

Christian Egalitarians take that verse at face value, understanding it to acknowledge the elaborate system of inequalities existing since shortly after the Creation. But the Founder of Christianity, Jesus Christ, abolished those systems for all eternity. Within his church, "in Christ," is the one sanctuary, the one oasis, the one protected place where there are no secondary distinctions of race, national origin, slavery, or gender discrimination. All are ONE in Christ."
  • Complementarian Christian views, also known as Traditional or Hierarchical views, take the Bible to prescribe a gender-based hierarchy and separate gender roles in the church and in marriage. These prescribed gender roles only recently have come to be described by some as "different but equal." Male priority still exists, but the two genders are to have "complementary" roles in the church and home. Complementarians argue that Galatians 3:28 speaks only of equal availability of all to salvation and does not pertain to marriage or ordination of women.

In the remainder of this article, a brief history of gender bias in the Bible, biblical interpretations used to support equal roles for men and women, and others used to object to equal roles for women and men will be presented.

History

Christianity emerged from Judaism, which is considered by some a patriarchal religion since God is almost always referred to with masculine pronouns. However, God is Spirit (John 4:24) and therefore is neither male nor female. Since the first English translation of the Bible, the Holy Spirit was referred to as "It" to indicate the lack of gender. However, that practice has changed with time since it was considered an offensively impersonal characterization. Yet, all illustrations of God are metaphors or anthropomorphisms. In Psalm 5:11–12, God is pictured as a mother hen with wide, safe wings outstretched for her young to run to her for protection and shelter in the time of storm or trouble. In Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 Jesus likens himself to a mother hen or a nesting, brooding, mother bird.

According to Genesis, Eve, the first woman, was created out of the rib of Adam, the first man. Interpreters often consider this to indicate a natural inferiority of women within the creation story of the religion, although it bears noting in rejoinder that the world is replete with examples where an extracted component of a commodity is of greater value than the original commodity (iron, for example, is more valuable than the iron ore from which it is extracted; gasoline is of much higher value than the crude oil from which it is extracted). Thus, even on its own terms, the "Adam's rib" theory is open to question.

Eve's weakness has sometimes been blamed for causing Adam's fall, and thus for humanity's fall into original sin. This claim was frequently made during the Middle Ages. In addition, those who argue that Judaism is founded upon patriarchal principles point out that religious and governmental authority within Jewish cultures has usually been restricted to the male gender.

However, even in the Jewish scriptures there are countercurrents to this patriarchal emphasis. While the creation narrative in Genesis 2 says Eve was made from and for Adam, the creation narrative in Genesis strongly implies that both man and woman were created at the same time. It also makes it clear that both male and female were created in the image of God: "So God created human beings in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them" (Genesis 1:27).

The Old Testament presents strong female role models, like the Judge Deborah, Judith and Esther, who were depicted as saving the Hebrew people from disaster. In the book of Proverbs, the divine attribute of Holy Wisdom is presented as female.

Jesus and Women

This section presents each of the New Testament records of Jesus' interactions with women.

Jesus on Mothers and Sisters

"If anyone comes to Me, and does not hate his own father and mother and wife and children and brothers and sisters, yes, and even his own life, he cannot be My disciple." (Luke 14:26, NASB)

Jesus as a boy in the Temple

The Bible claims Joseph and Mary took the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem on their annual Passover pilgrimage. His parents accidentally left Jesus behind, believing he was somewhere in the caravan with friends or other family members (Luke 2:44).

Three days later Mary found Jesus. She reproached him: "Son, why hast thou thus dealt with us? Behold, thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing" (Luke 2:48 KJV). He responded: "How is it that ye sought me? Wist ye not that I must be about my Father's business?" (Luke 2:49 KJV).

The wedding at Cana of Galilee

Mary and Jesus were attending a wedding. She told Jesus that there was little wine left. Apparently she expected him to do something about it. His reply seems curt: "What to me and to you, woman? Not yet has my hour come" (v. 4)[needs full citation]. The term "woman" is respectful but formal.[citation needed]

A deformed woman

According to the Book of [citation needed], Jesus saw a woman who was physically deformed. He freed her from her infirmity, enabling her to stand up straight. Beyond the miracle of physical restoration, Jesus enabled woman to stand up with a proper sense of dignity, freedom, and worth [citation needed]. Jesus referred to this woman as "a daughter of Abraham" (v. 16) [citation needed]. Elsewhere in the New Testament we hear of "children of Abraham," "seed of Abraham," and "sons of Abraham." [citation needed] This is the only place in the New Testament that we hear of "a daughter of Abraham." Jesus spoke of her as though she belonged to the family of Abraham just as much as did the "sons" of Abraham [citation needed]. He healed her on the Sabbath day, giving her priority over the Sabbath and over his own security [citation needed].

A widow of Nain

The Gospels describe two miracles of Jesus raising persons from the dead. In both incidents the dead are restored to women. Jesus restored to this widow her only son (Luke 7:11–17) and to Mary and Martha their brother Lazarus (John 11:1–44). In each case the compassion of Jesus for the grief-stricken women is stressed [citation needed].

A widow's offering

The parapble of a widow who cast "two copper coins" into the Temple treasury appears in Mark 12:41–44 and in Luke 21:1–4. What this widow gave was her self—"all of her living.[citation needed]" In this example, Jesus praises the woman for her cheritable giving.

A woman who anointed Jesus' feet

Jesus was an invited dinner guest in the home of a Pharisee. All those at the table were men. During the meal a woman called "a sinner" entered the room and anointed Jesus’ feet with her tears and with some ointment[citation needed]. She wiped her tears off his feet with her hair. Women of the time had few options[citation needed], and she was probably a prostitute[citation needed].

A woman who touched Jesus' garment

The Old Testament law considers blood, especially menstruation or hemorrhage, unclean[citation needed]. According to the Book of [citation needed], a woman had bled for 12 years. She approached Jesus from behind (Mark 5:27). When she touched Jesus' garment, the hemorrhaging stopped[citation needed]. He did not rebuke her for what the code of holiness would have considered defiling to him. Rather, he relieved her of any sense of guilt [citation needed] and said, "Daughter, your faith has saved you. Go in peace!" (Mark 5:34).

A woman rebuked

According to Luke 11:27–28, a woman in the crowd surrounding Jesus lifted her voice and cried out, "Blessed be the womb that bore you and the breasts that nursed you." Jesus gave her a curt [citation needed]answer: "On the contrary, blessed are those hearing the word of God and observing it."

An adulterous woman

The story appearing in most Bibles as John 7:53–8:11 does not seem to have been original to the Gospel of John or any other New Testament writing[citation needed]. According to the passage, Jesus was teaching in the Jerusalem temple. Some Scribes and Pharisees interrupted his teaching as they brought in an adulterous woman. They stood the woman before Jesus, declared the charge, reminded him of Moses' command that such women be stoned, and then asked, "What do you say?" [citation needed] Jesus said to the accusers, “Let the one among you who is without sin cast the first stone. [citation needed]"

When Jesus and the woman were alone, he asked her, "Woman, where are they? Did no one condemn you?[citation needed]" She said, "No one, Lord. [citation needed]" He replied, "Neither do I condemn you. Go, and from now on sin no more. [citation needed]"

A Syrophoenician woman

Jesus seems harsh toward the woman from the story in Mark 7:24–30 and its parallel in Matthew 15:21–28. At first he denies her request for help for her daughter. He also appears to be condescending and denigrating of her as he says, "First, let the children be fed, for it is not fitting to take the bread of the children and throw it to the dogs" (Mark 7:27). In the context, "the children" seem to be Jews and "the dogs" Gentiles[citation needed]. Elsewhere in the Gospels, Jesus uniformly prevails over his opponents[citation needed]. Here the woman prevails over Jesus in her reply: "Sir, even the dogs under the table eat from the children's crumbs" Mark 7:28. Jesus responded positively to the woman "because of this word" (v. 29)[citation needed].

She is identified as "a Greek, a Syrophoenician by race" (vs. 25f)[citation needed]. The point is not that she is a woman but that she is Gentile, not Jewish[citation needed]. "Dogs" was an epithet of the day for Gentiles, and Jesus appears to be on the side of Jewish contempt for Gentiles[citation needed]. In both Mark and Matthew non-Jews are likened to "dogs," [citation needed].

Why Jesus spoke harshly to this woman is still debated among theologians [citation needed].

The woman at the well in Samaria

John 4:1–42 Jesus did three things that were unconventional for his cultural-religious situation[citation needed]: (1) he as a man talked theology openly with a woman, [citation needed](2) he as a Jew asked to drink from the ritually unclean bucket of a Samaritan[citation needed], and (3) he did not avoid her even though he knew she had five former husbands and now lived with a man out of wedlock[citation needed].

The disciples showed their astonishment upon their return to the well: "They were marveling that he was talking with a woman" (John 4:27). A man in a Jewish world did not normally talk with a woman in public [citation needed].

This woman was the first "evangelist" in John's gospel [citation needed].

Mary and Martha

Luke and John show that Jesus had a close relationship with the sisters Mary and Martha. They are featured in three major stories: (1) a tension between the two sisters over roles (Luke 10:38–42); (2) grief at the death of their brother Lazarus, followed by his being raised (John 11:1–44); and (3) the anointing of Jesus by Mary (explicitly in John 12:1–8; presumably in Mark 14:3–9; Matthew 26:6–13).

Kitchen and study

According to Luke 10, Martha and Mary feuded when Jesus visited their home. While Martha prepared the meal, Mary sat at the feet of Jesus and "she was hearing his word" (Luke 10:39). Martha was angry with her sister for ignoring the work [citation needed]. Martha said to Jesus, "Lord, don't you care that my sister has left me to do the work by myself? Tell her to help me![citation needed]" Jesus rebuked Mary, then affirmed Martha [citation needed].

The Grieving Sisters

According to John 11, when Mary and Martha's brother Lazarus became ill, the sisters sent for Jesus. Jesus did not arrive until four days after Lazarus died. The grieving sisters met Jesus, then Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead[citation needed]. Martha reproached Jesus: "Lord, had you been here my brother would not have died." [citation needed]

Mary stayed in the house until Jesus called for her. When Martha went to get her, Mary came quickly and fell at Jesus' feet. Mary is at the feet of Jesus in every appearance recorded in John's gospel[citation needed].

She repeated Martha's words: "Lord, had you been here my brother would not have died. [citation needed]" They invited Jesus to come and see the tomb where Lazarus had lain. Jesus wept. The Jews standing by understood this as reflecting Jesus' love for Lazarus: "See how he loved him" (v. 36)[citation needed].

The anointing at Bethany

Only John identifies Mary with the anointing in Bethany; Mark and Matthew recount similar stories, but do not name the woman[citation needed]. New Testament scholar W. Hershey Davis suggests that Mary was among the first of Jesus' followers to anticipate his execution[citation needed].

Women who ministered with Jesus

Luke's gospel is the only one that claims many women ministered to and with Jesus, accompanying him and the disciples on evangelistic journeys (Luke 8:1–3). Most prominent among these is Mary Magdalene[citation needed]. Luke 8:1–3 in the Greek text is one long sentence[citation needed]. Its three points are Jesus, the disciples, and certain women[citation needed]. The chief motive of the paragraph seems to be to highlight these "many" women, with special reference to their financial support[citation needed]. Luke says these included women prominent in the state as well as the church[citation needed].

Jesus healed many women of "evil spirits and infirmities." Luke only details Mary Magdalene's exorcism, stating that "seven demons" had been cast out of her [citation needed].

Luke's word for women's "ministering" is widely used in the New Testament[citation needed]. Its noun cognate, diakonos, is variously translated "minister," "servant," and "deacon" (the latter in Romans 16:1 for Phoebe and in the pastoral letters)[citation needed].

Biblical interpretations supporting equal roles for men and women

The following are just a few of the scriptural references that can be interpreted to allow greater equality between men and women:

  1. Jesus said very little about the roles of men and women, but his actions give insight into how he considered the subject. In John 4:7 he converses with the Samaritan woman at the well, an unrelated woman, as an equal, something no Jewish or Roman male of that day would normally do. He treats her with respect, though her own neighbors obviously treat her with disdain.
  2. Luke 8:1-3 and several other passages show that Jesus had women as disciples.
  3. Jesus calls a woman, Mary Magdalene, to be the first witness to tell others of his resurrection[citation needed]. Many female ministers have held this to be the main justification for their equal calling[citation needed].
  4. In Acts 2:14-18, in Peter's sermon at the initiation of the modern church, he quotes the prophet Joel about the pouring out of the Spirit in the last days: the quoted benefits of the Spirit are shared equally by men and women. In fact, both sons and daughters will prophesy. (Prophecy here is not so much a foretelling of the future—rather the primary meaning is to speak for God.)
  5. Paul is accompanied by house-church leaders Priscilla and Aquila. Priscilla, a female, is a dominant figure in Paul's ministry and leads with Aquila.
  6. A woman named Junia is mentioned of note among the apostles (KJV) Romans 16:7. While Junia's gender is not perfectly clear in the Greek, there is considerable evidence that she was a woman. One of the earliest Christian commentators on the subject, John Chrysostom (349-407) wrote: "how great the wisdom of this woman must have been that she was even deemed worthy of the title of apostle." Without exception, the Church Fathers in late antiquity identified Andronicus’ partner in Rom 16:7 as a woman, as did a 9th century church record which recorded iounia with an acute accent, meaning feminine. When later medieval copyists of Rom 16:7 could not imagine a woman being an apostle, they wrote the masculine name “Junias.”.[2]
  7. In Romans 16:1-2, Phoebe is commended as a woman deacon.
  8. Pliny the Younger, in a correspondence to Emperor Trajan of Rome, writes of two female deaconesses whom he had tortured.

Two passages which do not specifically mention women are also seen to support any person who does Christ's work. In Mark 9:38 the disciples report to Jesus that someone is casting out demons in his name. They said they forbade that person because he is not "one of us." Jesus tells the disciples to leave him alone. Those who are not against us are for us, he says. Even a cup of water given in Jesus' name should not be opposed and will have its reward.

Jesus' stories often centered on deeds of compassion and generosity, traits often associated with womankind—and many of his parables involved women. An example is the Parable of the widow's mite, in which a relatively tiny gift from an impoverished woman is regarded by Christ as being a generous gift, equal with a lavish gift from a rich man, because the money was needed more by the poor woman—the rich man could easily afford to be generous.

Much of the imagery in the Bible depicts the Church as a bride, with Jesus Christ as the bridegroom. Therefore, every woman in some sense is an icon of the Christian Church. Men are also encouraged to live as icons of Christ, but to imitate Christ's humility and laying down of his life, rather than attempting to imitate Christ's lordship (see Ephesians 5.21).

Acts 2:17-18 says, "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy."

God expects all church members, male and female, to use the gifts God has given them (within the guidelines in scripture and in reverence to God's order and design). Below are Scriptures that show women using their God-given gifts in both the Old and New Testaments.

Micah 6:4; Exodus 15:20-21 (Miriam is sent along with Moses and Aaron). Judges 4 and 5 (Deborah was both a prophetess and judge of Israel). 2 Kings 22:14-20 (Huldah was a prophetess). Isaiah 8:3 (Isaiah's wife is referred to as a prophetess). Luke 2:36-38 (Anna the prophetess gave thanks and spoke of Jesus in the temple). Matthew 28, Mark 16, John 20 (Women were first to testify of Jesus' resurrection). Acts 2:16-18 (Promises that "your daughters will prophesy" Note: 1 Corinthians 14:3-4 says that he who prophesies does so to men and edifies the church). Acts 21:8-9 (Philip's four daughters prophesied). Romans 16:1-2 (Paul commends Phoebe as a "servant" which is the Greek word diakonos (Strong's reference number G1249) which is also translated as "deacon" in 1 Timothy 3:8. Apostle Paul refers to himself with the same Greek word in 1 Corinthians 3:5 (translated as "minister"). Romans 16:3-4 (Paul refers to Priscilla and Aquila, a husband wife team, as helpers in Christ. In Acts 18:24-26 Aquila and Priscilla taught and corrected Apollos so that he could understand the gospel more perfectly). Romans 16:7 (Junia and her husband are listed as apostles). Romans 16:12 (Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis labored in the Lord). Philippians 4:3 (Women labored with Paul in the Gospel).

Biblical interpretations supporting unequal roles for women and men

There are many scriptural references that reveal distinct functions/roles between men and women at home and in the church. The Bible endorses different functions/roles between men and women in the home. (1 Peter 3:1-6; Eph 5:22, 25; Titus 2:4; Colossians 3:18-19). In general, men are exhorted to lead with love and consideration, while women are told to submit with loving reverence. Colossians 3:18-23 in particular is addressed directly to specific groups: women are to submit to the leadership of their husband, men to love their wives and not to treat them with harshness, children to respect their parents, fathers not to frustrate their children, and slaves to obey their masters.

Both Paul and Peter refer to the Old Testament to justify the submission of woman to man; the creation of Eve after Adam (1 Corinthians 11:8-9) and the transgression of Eve before Adam (1 Timothy 2:12).

1 Peter 3:1-6 justifies submission on the grounds that "Sara obeyed Abraham, calling him lord" (KJV).

1 Corinthians 14:34 states that women must not speak/preach in Church "as also saith the law" (KJV), but there is no reference in the Old Testament to support this. 14:35 goes on to state that "it is a shame for women to speak in the church,” and that women should be taught only by their husbands. Many NT scholars have argued that a Greek particle that appears many times within Paul's writings—usually used when Paul is quoting a mistaken position and then refuting it—is used here. The particle comes directly at the beginning of 1 Corinthians 14:36, and is translated "What?" in the KJV; this leads some to believe that Paul is actually quoting a prior Corinthian letter in 1 Cor 14:34-35 and then refuting the proud Corinthian doctrine later.

Distinct-gender churches argue that Paul taught that the same principles apply in a formal church setting:

  1. Paul addresses women in formal church settings to keep silent based on Torah law regarding female subjugation to men (1 Cor 14:34-35). However, there is debate as to how much this should be seen as Paul speaking to a specific congregation at a specific time, and whether the passage speaks directly to today's society [2] [3] [4]
  2. Women are told to learn in silence with attitudes of subjugation in church. (1 Timothy 2:12-15) However, learning in silence was common practice for any rabbinical student at the time[citation needed].
  3. Women are restricted from teaching and "usurping" authority over men in formal church settings (1 Timothy 2:12-15).
  4. Women seem not to be considered in verses that discuss the criteria for selecting bishops and deacons (Titus 1:5-, 1 Timothy 3:1-12,14-15).
  5. Jesus did not choose any women to be apostles. After Jesus' ascension, the apostles seem not to have considered female candidates when choosing a replacement for Judas, or when choosing seven leaders (Luke 6:13; Acts 1:14-26; Acts 6:3). Jesus had several women followers, notably Mary Magdalene, but no female apostles.
  6. These exhortations were given to various church contexts and to traveling evangelists (Timothy, Titus) which were told to remain true to these specific teachings (removing the argument that they were cultural prescriptions), letters often circulated to all the churches, coincided (within the texts themselves) with teachings regarding family order, coincided with Torah, there is a consistency of doctrine in all letters of the NT, coincides with early church documents and traditions, and noted by Paul to be the commands of the Lord and traditions amongst "all the churches of God" (Areas: Corinth, Ephesus, Crete, etc.; 1 Corinthians 11:1-16; 1 Corinthians 14:33-38; 1 Timothy 3:14-15).
  7. Supporters of gender distinction often argue that gender distinction does not endorse oppression or abuse of authority. They say those in leadership are given mandates to rule with godliness and love, and that love must be subject to Christ's example.

Quakers

Main article: Quaker views of women

Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. In 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York, 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott.

Current church views of women's roles

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in marriage; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

  1. Full equality of roles and rights:
  2. Full secular equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges:
  3. Restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life:
  4. Forced restricted roles or rights
  5. Mixed
    • Southern Baptist Convention's official position[3] is to prohibit females from becoming clergy, and to insist that a wife "graciously submit" to the leadership of her husband. Members of an individual ("local") Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of the church that include the hiring of a pastor. However, many churches that have chosen female clergy as their pastor have been disenfranchised by either local or state Baptist associations.

The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive. It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into. The fourth view—forced restricted roles or rights—has been criticized as contravening international norms of human rights and is not enforceable under various national constitutions and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, although not in conformity with some modern Western views on this issue, has increasingly addressed the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995 "Letter to Women", his 1996 "Address on Promoting the Well-Being of Women", and the 1988 Apostolic Letter "On the Dignity and Vocation of Women", for examples.

Other notes: There is a controversial passage in 1Corinthians 11:1–16 whereby women are allowed to speak in formal church settings with the condition that they are veiled. It may be argued that the ruling principle is not limitation, but that ministry should be done with an attitude of reverence and submission to those in authority, and God's design and order. Paul reveals through the guidelines and principles of gender distinction that God is concerned with the preservation of family, creation, and church order. Thus, men's leadership roles are formally endorsed throughout the pages of scripture as opposed to women's.

However, in scripture, one can find that outside contexts of formality, women operate in many gifts of the Spirit like evangelizing, prophesying, serving, praying, teaching, laboring in ministry, preaching (John 4:28-30; 1 Cor 11:1-16; Matt 27:55; Acts 1:14; Acts 18:26; Phil 4:3; Luke 2:36-38).

References

  1. ^ Chuck Missler. Koinonia House Online. [1]
  2. ^ http://www.christian-thinktank.com/fem08.html
  3. ^ www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp

Catholic Church references

  • "Declaration Inter Insigniores on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.
  • Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.
  • "Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
  • Catechism of the Catholic Church. Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.

See also

External links

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