Çukuriçi Höyük

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Coordinates: 37 ° 55 ′ 45 ″  N , 27 ° 21 ′ 34 ″  E

Relief Map: Turkey
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Çukuriçi Höyük​
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Turkey

The Çukuriçi Höyük ( Turkish : 'hill in the valley') is a prehistoric tell settlement in western Turkey , about one kilometer southeast of the ancient city of Ephesus , in the south of the modern city of Selçuk in the province of İzmir . The site has been systematically excavated since 2006. Tell was first settled in the 7th millennium BC. BC ( Neolithic ; phases ÇuHö XIII – VIII), in the period from approx. 6700–6000 calBC . After a hiatus , the hill was built in the 2nd half of the 4th millennium BC. Colonized again (Late Chalcolithic ; phases ÇuHö VII – Vb). The settlement activity ended in the early Bronze Age (phases ÇuHö IV – III), around 2800/2750 calBC.

Research history

Overview of the excavations in the north and middle sections on the Çukuriçi Höyük (Horejs 2017, 13, Fig. 1.2; Photo: N. Gail, ÖAI).

The Çukuriçi Höyük has always been visible as a small elevation in the plain east of the Bülbüldağ and was mapped by A. Schindler as early as 1987, but as a natural hill. The first archaeological investigations took place in 1995 in the course of rescue excavations, under the direction of Selçuk Müzesi . In the following years, the hill was increasingly destroyed in the course of intensive agricultural activities, until the first planned excavations took place in 2006. These were initiated in 2005 by the head of the excavations at Ephesus, Friedrich Krinzinger . In the following year, 2007, the first systematic research on prehistoric archeology in Ephesus, financed by the Fund for the Promotion of Scientific Research (FWF Project P 19859-G02), began. These first measures, led by Barbara Horejs , were funded until 2010. The resulting groundbreaking results and the great scientific potential of the hill led to further projects, again financed by the FWF (FWF START Project Y 528-G02 and P 25825) and the European Research Council (ERC Prehistoric Anatolia 26339), also under the direction of Barbara Horejs. After completion of the project in 2016, the results will be prepared for publication in a separate "Çukuriçi Höyük" series within the scope of the Oriental and European Archeology ( Institute for Oriental and European Archeology (OREA)) publications.

Settlement and environment

The reconstruction of the prehistoric landscape, the originally running coastline, the existing ecological resources and finally the climatic conditions and their changes over the millennia are central questions in the exploration of the hill in its micro-regional environment. Against this background it becomes clear that the history of settlement can only be understood with the inclusion of interdisciplinary research disciplines. The team therefore consists of the fields of archeology , archeometallurgy , archeozoology , archeobotany , anthropology , climatology and physics as well as palaeogeography and geology / mineralogy .

Geographical studies that have already been completed show that Çukuriçi Höyük was originally located on a sea lagoon. Even if it is unclear whether mobile hunters and gatherers were already using this lagoon as a habitat, it is assumed that the first settlers came across the sea. These people brought with them a full package of maritime know-how, which can be inferred from specialized fishing and knowledge of navigation along certain sea routes. Even if the means of transport have not survived, the use of simple boats can be assumed. The valley basin, densely overgrown with oaks, was criss-crossed with small streams and formed the perfect habitat for early arable farmers and ranchers.

Excavations and results

Plan of the areas excavated between 2006 and 2014 on Çukuriçi Höyük (Horejs 2017, 16, Fig. 1.4; map: M. Börner; DEM: Th. Urban).

The site was dug in three areas. In the north (sections N 1-6), in the central area (section M1) and in the southern sections (S1-4), which probably uncovered the original center of the tell.

These excavations showed that the hill clearly visible in the landscape is a prehistoric tell (Turkish: Höyük ): Due to the thousands of years of use as a settlement site in the same place, massive, superimposed cultural layers emerged that have grown into an artificial hill. This type of settlement is typical in the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods (8th – 2nd millennium BC) from the Orient to Southeast Europe. In Western Anatolia, however, only a few hills have been excavated and systematically explored to date. On the Çukuriçi Höyük, a total of thirteen overlying settlements from different periods were found. Each of these phases of settlement (ÇuHö I – XIII) was dated relatively, but also in absolute chronology, based on material studies (mainly ceramics), based on over 100 radiocarbon dates.

Neolithic

The oldest settlement phase on Çukuriçi Höyük (phase ÇuHö XIII) comes from the early Neolithic and could be based on short-lived radiocarbon dates in the early 7th millennium BC. To be dated. The findings that were excavated at the foot of today's hill show remnants of everyday life, such as stone processing. The early evidence of pressure technology , for stone tools and specific types of equipment, indicate new influences from outside. Together with other indicators, this technology reflects a connection to the Northern Levant (PPNB), from which a maritime network can already be derived in this early phase of the Neolithic in Western Anatolia. Horejs assumes that pioneers, embedded in this network, looked for new land on the Aegean coast and thus represented the first settlers in this region.

Around 150 years later, in the late Neolithic, the settlers of Çukuriçi Höyük were already building houses from massive stone plinths with wooden posts and clay walls. Many activities can be reconstructed on the basis of the finds. This also includes weapons, such as slingshots made of stone and clay, which were kept within the settlement. A particularly unusual find is a depot from inside a building. They are long and sharp blades made of obsidian . Not only are they unique in the Aegean, but they also show us the far-reaching relationships between the residents. The raw material comes from the island of Melos in the Aegean Sea, around 300 km away; the technological and ritual practice is best known in the Middle East. Local potters made very high-quality, thin-walled vessels, which were probably used primarily for the storage and consumption of food. Fish were very often on the menu, as evidenced by the remains of a tuna fillet on a floor.

Even at this early stage the diet was varied and was based predominantly on keeping pigs, sheep and goats as well as cattle. The food was supplemented by the hunt for hare, fox, red deer and aurochs as well as the collection of sea shells. For the first time, there was also evidence of deep sea fish, which suggests a sea voyage across the borders of the Aegean Sea. Obsidian has been detected from the island of Melos, around 300 km away. There was also contact with Eastern Anatolia, Mesopotamia and the Middle East. A craft specialization of the people who settled here can be seen, among other things, in the high-quality ceramic vessels and the beaten stone utensils, which were mainly made from imported obsidian. This early settlement was abandoned and apparently abandoned for reasons that are still unclear.

Late Chalcolithic

After a hiatus of around 2600 years, the settlement mound was only reassembled in the late Chalcolithic, in the 2nd half of the 4th millennium BC. Settled. This “resettlement” includes the phases ÇuHö VII-Vb, which were excavated in sections N7 and M1. The oldest phase of this epoch was surrounded by a huge moat, for which a fortification character is assumed. After a short time, however, this was again filled with tons of stones, probably also to enlarge the settlement area. Immediately afterwards, new structures were built. Diverse architecture, textile production and metallurgical handicrafts can be found in the settlement. A special marble figure shows that the inhabitants of the 4th millennium BC Were active in large-scale networks. Residential and storehouses as well as drying platforms suggest intensive agriculture. Due to extensive contacts and specialized handicrafts, the foundation stone for the protourbanen settlements of the 3rd millennium BC was laid at this time.

Early Bronze Age

The Early Bronze Age is an epoch of great and lasting changes in the Aegean and Southeastern Europe. Probably triggered by the demand for metals and their trade, as well as the resulting wealth, the first protourban centers and fortified large settlements emerged around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The role of Western Anatolia in this important phase of development of human societies is still unclear in many areas. From around 3000 BC BC, with the beginning of the Bronze Age, the hill is now built closely together. Multi-room buildings, squares and paths bear witness to the intensive use of the area. Around 50 furnaces and a large number of metallurgical finds are evidence of a metallurgy center on Çukuriçi Höyük. Of particular importance is the production of copper objects, the production of which can be demonstrated from casting in a prefabricated form to post-processing in the forging process. The analytical studies of metals, slag, semi-finished and finished products as well as associated tools show a highly specialized society between 2950/2900 and 2750 calBC. The focus of these craftsmen was mainly on the production of arsenic copper. This was expanded to include a few precious metals (gold, silver), silver-copper alloys and, very rarely, tin-bronze production. Ceramic finds such as jugs and storage vessels, but also objects made of antlers and the metal finds give an insight into the everyday life of specialized craftsmen. In the workshops, besides objects for own use, products for the trade were also made. Ovens and stoves were also used to cook or warm food. Other manual activities such as working with bones or leather also took place within the rooms. Textile production is another important branch of the economy. Numerous finds such as spindle whorls and weaving weights can be found in the settlement. Looms in the rooms indicate a specialization in this handicraft area as well.

The early Bronze Age settlement can be viewed as a place with multifaceted activities. First and foremost, it is a metallurgy center for the production of copper and bronze objects. In addition to these specialists, there were also textile craftsmen, fishermen and small farmers among the residents. Other groups outside the center are believed to have taken over cattle breeding. This specialization and division of labor suggest early protourbane structures around 5000 years ago.

Another important role within the Bronze Age settlement, in addition to hunting and agriculture, is maritime fishing. The preparation of mussels was also very popular at that time. This can be demonstrated by means of pits that were filled with mussel shells. A clear change can be observed in the eating habits of the residents compared to the previous periods: during the Early Bronze Age sheep and goats are dominant, followed by cattle. In addition, fallow deer, aurochs and possibly bison were hunted. The cockle is particularly dominant in marine resources. A high degree of diversity was found in the fish, including dolphins. Fresh water species, except for the eel, were not caught. Deep-sea fishing could be demonstrated through the findings of sharks and rays, with most of the fishing taking place near the coast.

meaning

The excavations on Çukuriçi Höyük not only revealed the oldest settlement of Ephesus, which began around 9,000 years ago, but also one of the oldest settlements in Western Anatolia. Central questions about the spread of the Neolithic way of life from Inner Anatolia to Southeast Europe form only one aspect of the study of the Tell. The function of the hill in the 4th millennium BC BC, the cultural developments that took place in this period, which finally led to the new epoch of the Bronze Age, form an additional broad field of research with many unanswered questions. Finally, the Çukuriçi Höyük, with its well-preserved remains of settlements from the early Bronze Age, also offers the potential for lasting cultural changes in the early 3rd millennium BC. To better grasp. Its location at the intersection between the cultural areas of Anatolia and the Aegean Sea also allows research into large-scale contacts and relationships, without which some developments in the prehistory of mankind are inconceivable.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ http://www.orea.oeaw.ac.at/forschung/anatolian-aegean-prehistoric-phenomena/prehistoric-anatolia/
  2. ^ O. Benndorf: On local knowledge and city history . In: O. Benndorf (Ed.): Research in Ephesos 1 . Vienna 1906, p. 1-110 .
  3. ^ A. Evren: Efes Çukuriçi Höyüğü 1996 Yılı Kazısı . In: Arkeoloji ve Sanat 92 . 1999, p. 22-32 .
  4. ↑ A. Evren, C. Icten: Efes Çukuriçi ve Arvalya (Gul hanım) Höyükleri . In: Müze Kurtarama Kazıları Semineri (1997) 7 . 1998, p. 111-133 .
  5. ↑ B. Horejs: Çukuriçi Höyük 1. Anatolian and the Aegean from the 7th to the 3rd Millennium BC . In: Oriental and European Archeology 5 . Vienna 2017.
  6. ↑ F. Stock et al .: Neolithic settlement sites in Western Turkey - palaeogeographic studies at Çukuriçi Höyük and Arvalya Höyük . In: Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4 . 2015, p. 565-577 .
  7. ^ B. Horejs et al .: The Aegean in the early 7th millennium BC. Maritime networks and colonization . In: Journal of World Prehistory 28, 4, . 2015, p. 289-330 .
  8. ^ B. Milić, B. Horejs: The Onset of Pressure Blade Making in Western Anatolia in the 7th Millennium BC. A Case Study from Neolithic Çukuriçi Höyük . In: Horejs 2017 . S. 27-52 .
  9. ↑ Horejs et al. 2015
  10. ↑ Horejs et al. 2015
  11. ↑ M. Bergner et al .: On the origin of the obsidian artifacts from Çukuriçi Höyük . In: Studia Troica 18 . 2009, p. 251-273 .
  12. ^ Ch. Britsch, B. Horejs: The role of textile production and fishing in the EBA metallurgical center of Çukuriçi Höyük . In: Egypt and the Levant 24 . 2014, p. 229-242 .
  13. ↑ M. Mehofer: Çukuriçi Höyük. A metallurgy center of the early 3rd millennium. v. In western Turkey . In: M. Bartelheim - B. Horejs - R. Krauss (eds.): From Baden to Troia. Use of resources, metallurgy and knowledge transfer. An anniversary font for Ernst Pernicka . Oriental and European Archeology 3. Rahden / Westf. 2016, p. 359-373 .
  14. ↑ Ch. Schwall, B. Horejs: Western Anatolian Impact on Aegean Figurines and Religion? In: Horejs 2017 . S. 53-78 .
  15. ↑ Ch. Schwall: Çukuriçi Höyük 2. The 5th and 4th millennium BC In Western Anatolia and the Eastern Aegean, OREA 7 . Vienna 2018.
  16. ↑ B. Horejs: Proto-Urbanization without urban centers? A model of transformation for the Izmir region in the 4th millennium BC . In: B. Horejs, M. Mehofer (Eds.): Western Anatolia Before Troy. Proto-Urbanization in 4th Millennium BC. Proceedings of the International Symposium held at the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Vienna, Austria, November 21–24, 2012, Oriental and European Archeology 1 . Vienna 2014, p. 15-41 .
  17. ↑ Mehofer 2016
  18. ^ A. Galik, in: B. Horejs: Activities and subsistence in the settlements of Çukuriçi Höyük. The state of research after the excavations 2006–2007 . In: Prehistoric Journal . tape 86 , p. 31-66 .

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