Critical Cartography

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Critical cartography (Engl. Critical cartography ) questioned the dominant (technical) paradigm of Cartography , which says that cards were neutral images of reality, and criticized and analyzed maps as the expression and / or producers of social realities. By critically questioning maps and their creation in general and in detail, knowledge is to be situated in terms of time and space, its relationship to power is to be examined and the foundations of thinking are to be questioned. In addition to theoretical approaches, there are also numerous practical works in critical cartography. Theory and practice of critical cartography developed largely independently of the academic discipline "cartography".

Main messages

In short, four main statements can be made for critical cartography:

1. Maps are useful tools for producing and classifying knowledge. At the same time, this knowledge is subject to certain invisible, limiting categories that need to be critically questioned.

2. One possibility to question these limiting categories is to put maps in historical context. By classifying them in the development of maps in the history of ideas, it becomes clear that knowledge has a temporal dimension . In this way, other perspectives on the research object can be opened up. Closely related to this is the premise that knowledge (about maps or the interpretation of what maps are) also has a spatial dimension and varies over distances.

3. Geographical knowledge is made up of a multitude of social, economic and historical influences and is therefore, like all knowledge, inextricably linked with power ( power / knowledge ). In this respect, every card is seen as fundamentally political.

4. Critical cartography has an activist, emancipatory moment. By working out the spatial and temporal limits of knowledge, hegemonic structures are called into question.

Origin / development

This section deals with theoretical approaches with an explicit concept of criticism . Some authors see a long-standing tradition of critical practice in cartography and argue that every innovation is ultimately initiated by criticism.

With the breakup of an exclusively rational, enlightened understanding of society, in which science was situated as a neutral organizational tool, a critical trend also developed in cartography in the 1960s. The paradigm that maps are only representations of reality has been increasingly challenged.

The historian and cartographer Arno Peters , for example, called for maps to be interpreted as social products, and criticized the Mercator projection and the like. a. as Eurocentric . He countered this with the Peters projection , which he saw as a better alternative, which the German Society for Cartography and the Association of Map Publishers in Germany deny.

Influenced by intellectuals such as Panofsky , Foucault and Derrida , the historical geographer Brian Harley worked out in the 1980s that maps can implicitly read rules of social order at the time and place of their creation, that is, these are images of social structures ("external power" ). In his later writings, he also speaks of an "internal power" of maps; although they are never reality, they create new reality in a certain way.

Denis Wood , influenced by the work of Roland Barthes , used a road map of North Carolina in the early 1990s to show that every map serves interests and is therefore political. What Wood and Harley have in common is a “ more or less post-structuralist and constructivist basic perspective, ” they see maps as a discourse.

In recent years, particularly in British geography, non- or post-representational works have taken an important place in critical cartography following Deleuze and Latour. These approaches are understood as an attempt to overcome an alleged overestimation of representation in post-structuralist theories and to counteract this eventuality, actor networks and practices .

In German-speaking science, there are very few critical discussions about the card medium.

In 2010, Jeremy W. Crampton's “ Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS “the first textbook.

Criticism of the positivistic cartography

Critical cartography representatives express fundamental criticism of the realistic conception of maps in geography, which is viewed as positivistic . The card communication model is symbolic of this.

The card communication model

From the mid-20th century onwards, cartography was shaped by the view that space can be conceptualized by means of points, lines and surfaces and - in reaction to the propaganda use of maps, especially during World War II - that maps and all elements in them should be as one an accurate illustration of reality. The American cartographer Arthur H. Robinson, influenced by Shannon's communication model , was important . Based on scientific findings from psychology, physiology and design, he formulated design rules for cards. He also developed the card communication model . According to this, geographers use maps to encode reality. The person who reads the map decodes it in turn and should get a realistic idea of ​​the mapped area. When encoding or decoding, interference can deliberately e. B. in the form of propaganda influences, but also occur unconsciously. According to the “reality content”, cards can be divided into “good” and “bad” cards, with good cards being a-political, empirical and scientific. This positivistic, binary conceptualization of maps was especially dominant in the anglophone scientific discussion in geography until the 1990s.

criticism

In contrast to these positivistic approaches in cartography, all representatives of critical cartography have at least the concept of criticism in common. In the style of Immanuel Kant , the Frankfurt School and Foucault, criticism does not mean finding mistakes. The truth claims arising from a system of norms (eg: "Maps reflect reality") lead to a division into "correct" and "incorrect" knowledge. Criticism should reveal the logic and rules behind such a system, can locate this system spatially and temporally and thus relativize it. An attempt is then made to formulate alternatives from the knowledge obtained. Criticism, however, cannot be clearly defined because it […] only works in relation to something other than itself […] . In this respect, criticism can be interpreted broadly and can be expressed in many ways.

According to the understanding of critical cartography, the focus should not be on perfecting the neutrality and the reality content of a map, since this approach cannot break out of the existing system of standards and is therefore shortened. Rather, maps should help to show different perspectives of reality.

Critical Cartography Paradigms

The critical reactions to the prevailing paradigm in cartography that maps are images of reality can be divided into two paradigms:

Maps as an expression of social (power) relationships

When creating a new map, it is not possible to actually display all features of the area to be mapped. Since the area has to be scaled, it is necessary to generalize and naturalize social issues for clarity. The mapping individual is socialized in a certain way, documenting in this process "[often] just as eagerly the contours of feudalism, the outlines of religious hierarchies or the steps on the levels of social class as a topography of the physical and human environment."

The ultimately socially induced logic underlying the necessary selection thus necessarily leads to a reproduction of the existing system of norms.

In addition, the development process can no longer be read in the end product of mapping, the map. Readers stand in front of a depiction of text and image whose "numerous, heterogeneous elements [are] simultaneously and spatially related to one another" .

This wealth of information leads to the perception of maps as images. Denis Wood develops Roland Barthes “Myth as a secondary semiological system” and interprets maps as a myth in this sense. Their reality content "in itself" is not questioned, since the reality content of the individual elements is apparently consistent (where the symbol "church" is on the map, there is also one in reality).

Harley also speaks of an "external power" of cards. This is written into cards “outside” and then shows up in the end product. Most cards are backed by a powerful client, such as the church, state institutions, etc. with specific interests. Maps are and were a means of control and surveillance.

In this respect, all maps are an expression of the social power relations of the place where they were created.

Maps as producers of social (power) relationships

In his best-known essay Deconstructing the Map , Brian Harley laid the foundations for a change of focus in critical cartography in 1989. Inspired by the writings of Foucault and Derrida, he calls for cartography as such and maps in detail to be treated as discourses. The focus of analysis should no longer be on the social power relations (“external power”) inscribed in them. Just as goods are standardized in factories, cartographic practice standardizes our ideas of the world. By means of the discourse analysis, the effects that constitute reality during mapping are to be examined. In order to work with maps in discourse theory, Harley suggests reading maps as texts and examining the hierarchies of their representation. What maps conceal or conceal, their geometries (e.g. centering, alignment) and the effect of their symbolism are also at the center of Harley's interest.

Every map produces and stabilizes power by creating theses about what is depicted through naturalization, spatialization, and generalization. Territory is not only mapped, it is (re-) produced, the claim to exactly one specific reality is reinforced. Even if maps do not represent reality, they still help to constitute reality. As an example, Harley cites colonial North America, where cards were used to assert ownership claims regardless of the political territories of the "Native Americans" among the European invaders.

To interpret maps as symbolic order and representations did not go far enough for many critical cartographers. Maps are more than symbolism, discourse and grammar, they contain practice, performance and action.

The work of the sociologist Bruno Latour contributed significantly to the further development . He used cartography as an example to show how western scientific knowledge became hegemonic and, as a result, could and can assert "truth claims" about the world. He worked out how scientific objects are produced through a multitude of practices and active relationships and become actors within scientific arrangements.

Cartography and mapping is understood as a practice in this sense. With the actor-network theory as a framework, it can be examined how maps as actors are in a complex relationship with other actors / actors and how they constitute and change reality. In these non-representational approaches, cards themselves have no meaning, but are parts of an arrangement of material and social contexts. The focus is not on the specific technique of mapping and its product, the map, but rather mapping as a human practice to find one's way in geographical reality.

So-called decolonization approaches, which see Eurocentric mapping practices as part of a coloniality / modernity paradigm, have a different approach . Accordingly, the maps, offered as neutral and rational, conceal a structural “coloniality of power” (Walther Mignolio), in which a racial geographical order and the control of labor, state and knowledge production are combined.

Example: Denis Woods critical examination of a road map of North Carolina

In the bestseller The Power of Maps , Denis Wood works out that maps always serve interests, even if they are hidden, or are fundamentally shaped by them. Using an apparently “neutral” road map of North Carolina (1978–1979 edition), he shows that every map is political. This work has become a classic in cartography and shows how maps are images and producers of social (power) relationships. This example also shows that the two paradigms mentioned are recognizable, but mostly interwoven.

Wood begins by describing what can be seen on the map:

On one side there are photos of sights (e.g. a zoo animal, a ski lift, a dune), a ferry timetable, a welcome letter from the governor and a driver's prayer. On the other side of the map, North Carolina is framed by the neighboring states and the Pacific. Arranged around the actual map are ten small maps of cities, some safety tips, an index of the towns and cities and (partly) the distances between them.

Wood also paid great attention to the legend that is also present. He also describes this first, it contains typical elements such as explanations of street classifications, map symbols, settlement sizes and a scale. He then shows how the legend is less a tool for understanding the map than a banner ad for the state of North Carolina. Unlike Robinson et al. demand that it is impossible to list all not self-explanatory symbols on a map in a legend. Rather, the understanding of symbols is socialized and not generally applicable (e.g. there is no necessary relationship between blue as a symbol for water and water itself). In this respect, it is also necessary to select certain symbols for the legend, which vary according to the type of statement required. Wood also does not recognize any logic in the legend that serves to provide an overview, for example in the abundance of different street and city symbols. The photos on the back, on which there are only people with "white" skin color, are also obviously intended to address a target group and not to maintain neutrality in the sense of a tool.

Wood points out that this apparent chaos on the legend has nothing to do with the ineptitude of the cartographers. The legend does not serve the map and make it easier to read. Using Barthe's concept of myth, Wood shows how the legend with all its elements and the entire design of the map are ultimately designed to emphasize the attractiveness and specialty of North Carolina. From this point of view everything suddenly fits together. The abundance of street symbols, for example, ultimately indicate the size and differentiation of the road network in North Carolina and how suitable it is for individual motorized traffic.

With this example Wood makes it clear that all cards necessarily take a certain point of view on a certain issue, while on the surface they pretend to be neutral. In the course of this argument, he speaks of the fact that maps are not the windows through which we see reality. Rather, they can be compared to the windows through which pontiffs and rulers demonstrate their claim to power.

Maps as instruments of power

Maps and power between early and modern times

As historical cartographer Brian Harley points out, even a superficial examination of the history of cartography reveals the extent to which it has always been part of maintaining power. Only the elites of different societies had this knowledge.

As examples, Harley cites the religious elites of ancient Egypt and medieval Europe, the intellectual elites of ancient Greece and Rome, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire, ancient China, or the absolute monarchs of early modern Europe. Maps were used by the elites to maintain and expand their claim to power. According to Harley, mapping was one of the intellectual weapons with which power could be obtained, administered, legitimized and codified.

Maps and power in modern times

With the emergence of the modern state, the state's grip on the population changed. After Michel Foucault, its inhabitants were no longer at the mercy of an all-powerful sovereign who could freely dispose and judge their lives ( anatomical power ). Rather, from now on , power aimed at the best possible control and optimization of human life ( bio-power ); the population itself became a resource.

Michel Foucault calls the “ totality, formed by the institutions, the procedures, analyzes and reflections, the calculations and the tactics that make it possible to exercise this rather specific and yet complex form of power, which the population as the main target The main form of knowledge is political economy and, as an essential technical instrument, the security system has […] “ governmentality .

In order to manage its population, the modern state collected information about population and territory. With the help of maps, the ever-increasing mass of information could be displayed and communicated. For this purpose, cartography was institutionalized more and more, especially in the course of the 19th century, and embedded in political economy as a necessary component of governmentality .

Critical Cartography in Practice

In addition to the theoretical preoccupation with cards, more and more “laypeople” are taking card production into their own hands. As early as 1992, Denis Wood asked his readers to make use of the power of cards themselves in order to gain knowledge outside of the hegemonic provision of information. So-called counter-mapping , mapping as a resistance to hegemonic maps, gained greater importance since the 1990s. Well-known examples are the Maya Atlas, with which the land rights of indigenous peoples in Nicaragua and Belize could be asserted, or the mapping of surveillance cameras by the “Surveillance Camera Players” group in New York.

The term map hacking describes the acquisition and use of open source maps on the one hand, and the combination of several GIS or maps to create a new map with new information on the other.

Under everyday mappings practices are combined with those individualized maps and cartography and maps conventions are broken. Through the appropriation and production of maps for the purpose of individual use, spatial representations are created that are usually only intended to serve the people directly involved and instead illuminate other, new aspects of space.

Critical methods such as discourse analysis and their benefits are also slowly coming to the fore in didactics in secondary schools. With the help of these methods, a more differentiated understanding of space, cartography and maps can be conveyed than before and the students' competence in critical thinking can be sharpened.

Card art

Another access to maps can be summarized under the designation map art (Eng .: map art). The more recent developments in map art can be divided into three different approaches to maps within:

  1. Artists who use the iconography of maps in order to write their own understandings and utopias in connection with space on the map through falsification and changes.
  2. Artists who want to question the status quo through maps or other occupations with space and who claim to change the awareness of the “world” through irritation. This would include , for example, the surrealistic map of the world from 1929.
  3. Artists who use methods of cartography to depict informal areas such as stock markets or the Internet rather than spatial.

Connection and demarcation to critical GIS and geo web research

Critical cartography and critical GIS (or Geoweb) research have a lot of overlap, especially the understanding of criticism. The separation is not clearly defined, it is fluid and depends on the respective understanding of the connection between GIS and cartography. Geographic information systems are mostly used to generate maps and are also not as neutral as they claim to be. The production of cartographic material has never been greater and with it the amount of material for critical cartographic processing is higher than ever before.

Even if a separation is not clearly defined, it can be carried out according to the respective focus:

Critical GIS research deals more with the investigation of the interactions between GIS and society or individuals, but also with the hardware and software used and their accessibility, while critical cartography deals more critically with the discipline of cartography, maps and mapping in a broader sense .

literature

  • Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography. In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005, pp. 11–33, ISSN  1492-9732 ( PDF; 174 KB )
  • Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6
  • Georg Glasze: Critical Cartography. In: Geographische Zeitschrift Vol. 97, Issue 4, 2009, pp. 181–191, ISSN  0016-7479
  • JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9
  • Julia Roth: World map. In: Susan Arndt and Nadja Ofuatey-Alazard (eds.): (K) inherit the colonialism in the knowledge archive of the German language. A critical reference work. UNRAST-Verlag, Münster 2011, pp. 554-564, ISBN 978-3-89771-501-1
  • Denis Wood: The Power of Maps. The Guilford Press, New York 1992, ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , p. 181–191 here: p. 187
  2. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005 ISSN  1492-9732 pp. 11-33 ( PDF; 174 KB ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.acme-journal.org
  3. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , p. 17
  4. ↑ Denis Wood and John Krygier: Critical Cartography In: Rob Kitchin and Nigel Thrift (Eds.): International Encyclopedia of Human Geography , Elsevier, 2009, ISBN 978-0-08-044910-4 , pp. 340-44 ( PDF; 190 KB )
  5. ↑ Cf.:. Method lexicon for the social sciences, Wiesbaden 2014, p. 236.
  6. ↑ Ideology instead of cartography - The truth about the "Peters world map". Statement by the German Society for Cartography and the Association of Map Publishers in Germany from 1985 on the so-called Peter projection
  7. ↑ Boris Michel: For a post-structuralist perspective on the making and power of cards. Reply to Ball and Petsimeris In: Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung . Volume 11, No. 3, Art. 28, 2010, ISSN  1438-5627 , ( online ) (accessed October 14, 2013)
  8. ↑ Boris Michel: For a post-structuralist perspective on the making and power of cards. Reply to Ball and Petsimeris In: Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung . Volume 11, No. 3, Art. 28, 2010, ISSN  1438-5627 , ( online ) (accessed: October 14, 2013) here: Chapter 3.5
  9. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , p. 181–191 here: p. 181
  10. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005 ISSN  1492-9732 pp. 11–33 here: p. 20 ( PDF ; 174 KB ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.acme-journal.org
  11. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , p. 55
  12. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 182
  13. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , Chapter 5. How Mapping Became Scientific.
  14. ↑ Judith Butler: What is Criticism? An essay on Foucault's virtue From the American by Jürgen Brenner In: transversal - eipcp multilingual webjournal May 2001 ISSN  1811-1696 ( accessed online on October 16, 2013)
  15. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 182
  16. ↑ Denis Wood: The Power of Maps The Guilford Press, New York, 1992, ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9 here: p. 76
  17. ↑ Boris Michel: For a post-structuralist perspective on the making and power of cards. Reply to Ball and Petsimeris In: Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung . Volume 11, No. 3, Art. 28, 2010, ISSN  1438-5627 , ( online ) (accessed: October 14, 2013) here: Chapter 3.3
  18. ↑ Brian Harley (1989, German 2004) quoted from Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 184
  19. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 184
  20. ↑ Denis Wood: The Power of Maps The Guilford Press, New York, 1992, ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9 , here: pp. 104-105
  21. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , p. 165
  22. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 184
  23. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , pp. 165-166
  24. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , pp. 33-51
  25. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , pp. 83-109
  26. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 186
  27. ^ Rob Kitchin, Chris Perkins and Martin Dodges: 1 Thinking about Maps . In: Martin Dodge, Rob Kitchin, and Chris Perkins (Eds.): Rethinking Maps. New Frontiers in Cartographic Theory . Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2009, ISBN 0-415-46152-9 ( PDF, 360 kB , accessed October 27, 2013)
  28. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , p. 167
  29. ↑ Boris Michel: For a post-structuralist perspective on the making and power of cards. Reply to Ball and Petsimeris In: Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung . Volume 11, No. 3, Art. 28, 2010, ISSN  1438-5627 , ( online ) (accessed: October 14, 2013) here: Chapter 3.5
  30. ↑ Boris Michel: For a post-structuralist perspective on the making and power of cards. Reply to Ball and Petsimeris In: Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung . Volume 11, No. 3, Art. 28, 2010, ISSN  1438-5627 , ( online ) (accessed: October 14, 2013) here: Chapter 3.5
  31. ↑ Georg Glasze: Kritische Kartographie In: Geographische Zeitschrift 97th Jg., Heft 4, 2009, ISSN  0016-7479 , pp. 181–191 here: p. 186
  32. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , p. 12
  33. ↑ Julia Roth: "Weltkarte" In: Susan Arndt and Nadja Ofuatey-Alazard (eds.): (K) inherit the colonialism in the knowledge archive of the German language. A critical reference work. UNRAST-Verlag, Münster, 2011, ISBN 978-3-89771-501-1 , pp. 554–564, here: p. 556
  34. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , pp. 62-63
  35. ↑ Denis Wood: The Power of Maps The Guilford Press, New York, 1992, ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9 , pp. 98-108
  36. ^ JB Harley: The New Nature of Maps. Essays in the History of Cartography The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2001, ISBN 0-8018-7090-9 , pp. 56-57
  37. ↑ M. Foucault (2000). "The governmentality". In: U. Bröckling / S. Krassmann / T. Lemke (eds.) Governmentality of the Present. Studies on the economization of the social . Suhrkamp: Frankfurt a. M. ISBN 978-3-518-29090-3 , pp. 41-67
  38. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , pp. 64-65
  39. ↑ Denis Wood: The Power of Maps The Guilford Press, New York, 1992, ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9 , pp. 182-185
  40. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , pp. 124-125
  41. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005 ISSN  1492-9732 pp. 11-33 ( PDF; 174 KB ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) P. 18 + 25 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.acme-journal.org
  42. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005 ISSN  1492-9732 pp. 11-33 ( PDF; 174 KB ( Memento of the original from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) p. 25 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.acme-journal.org
  43. ↑ Kim Pascal Miener: Discourse Analysis - A Method for Geography Lessons ? . In: Praxis Geographie . 1/2012, ISSN  0171-5178 pp. 44–45 ( PDF; 72 KB ( Memento of the original from October 27, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link accordingly Instructions and then remove this notice. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / files.schulbuchzentrum-online.de
  44. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , pp. 173-176
  45. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton: Mapping. A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-2173-6 , p. 11
  46. ↑ Jeremy W. Crampton, John Krygier: An Introduction to Critical Geography In: ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies Volume 4, No. 1, 2005 ISSN  1492-9732 p. 16 ( PDF; 174 KB ( Memento des Originals from July 20, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.acme-journal.org