Palenquero

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Palenquero

Palenquero is a Spanish- based Creole language spoken in Colombia . It is spoken in San Basilio de Palenque , a village about 50 kilometers inland from Cartagena de Indias (in the Departamento de Bolívar ), which was used by escaped African slaves at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. Century was founded. Originally there were several palenques (fortifications built from wooden stakes - palos ) in the region. However, the others were attacked and destroyed by slave owners' militias .

history

The term palenquero is derived from palenques. Palenques were the name of villages that were founded by escaped African slaves from Cartagena de Indias , the so-called " cimarrones " in the 16th century. Until the time of their recognition, the villagers were in constant battle with the Spanish authorities and the white population. The first document in which the village of Palenque de San Basilio is mentioned dates back to 1713. In the same year an agreement with the then Bishop of Cartagena promised the residents freedom in their territory. In return, however, they were not allowed to accept any further escaped slaves or whites. This gave Palenque de San Basilio the status of primer pueblo libre de América . In the post-colonial period, the residents of San Basilio continued to live in isolation and the village was difficult to reach. In recent decades, the contact between the inhabitants of the Palenques and the surrounding villages and towns has increased due to good transport connections, electricity and the associated new communication options. While the younger villagers mainly speak Spanish , it is mainly the older residents who only speak Palenquero, which suggests some scholars that the language will become extinct over the next few decades. The population is aware of this danger and is fighting together with some social scientists for the preservation of their community and their language. In 2005, Palenquero de San Basilio was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO .

To the origin of language

The origin of the Palenquero is controversial in science to this day and gives rise to contradicting conjectures - conjectures as there is very little evidence of the way it was spoken in the province of Cartagena during the colonial period. The question is whether the Palenquero is something "new"; H. a language that developed primarily in Colombia , or is something “borrowed”. The latter would mean finding their ancestry primarily in a bantu - Portuguese based creole language introduced to Latin America . An attempt to represent a descent from a general Creole root was made with the "monogenetic" theory. According to this theory, a Portuguese-based pidgin or creole that had formed in the African colonies of Portugal was spread to the French, English, and Dutch colonies through the slave trade. The monogenetic theory tries to explain why there are some similarities between the Creole languages ​​of different places. According to this, slaves from the islands of São Tomé and Annobón introduced an Afro-Portuguese Creole language into the “New World”, which mixed with Spanish, creating the Creole languages ​​Palenquero and Papiamentu . However, not all scientists agree with this theory, insofar as some emphasize that the Palenquero was created as a solution to a situation of communication difficulties in the New World. While z. B. Portuguese vocabulary refers to the slave trade, other similarities that apply to Creole languages ​​can be traced back to the same conditions of language use.

Examples of the influence that different languages ​​had on the Palenquero:

Examples from Portuguese:

  • The personal pronoun of the 2nd person singular “bo” (tú, du) could come from the Portuguese “vos” and “ele” (él / ella, he / she) from the Portuguese Êle.
  • The form for “there is” (in Spanish “hay”) is in the Palenquero “ten”, which comes from the Portuguese “tem” (“there is”).
  • The verb “bae” (ir, to go) comes from “vai”, the 2nd person singular of the verb “ir”.

Examples from Spanish:

Examples from Bantu languages:

Common features of Creole languages, which the Palenquero also exhibits:

grammar

Word order

In most cases, the sentence order in Palenquero is SVO (Subject Verb Object).

Verbal system

The verb remains unchanged in the Palenquero and is marked by particles .

basic forms

The basic form of the verb is mostly based on the Spanish infinitive and has an ending stress:

jablá (hablar-speak), kelé (querer-like), sindí (sentir-hear).

past

To express the past, the Palenquero uses the particle -ba , which is usually placed after the main verb. Occasionally, these particles can also be combined with the -a or -ase particles .

Bs:
pa .: ele ya kumé ba
spa .: Él ya comió
dt .: he has already eaten

present

The unmarked basic form can also be used as a general present tense.

Bs:
pa .: bo kaminá
sp .: (tu) caminas
dt .: you run

future

To express the future, the Palenquero uses the particle -tan , which is placed in front of the basic form of the verb.

Bs:
pa .: i tan kantá
sp .: (yo) cantaré
dt .: I will sing

To express the future, you can also use the haber a + basic form in the Palenquero .

Bs:
pa .: Ele a kusiná planda
sp .: Ella va a cocinar plátanos
dt .: She will cook bananas

Other ways of expressing the future tense are to use the basic form in connection with expressions of time such as maana (tomorrow).

The negation

The bow in the Palenquero is expressed by the morpheme nu , which is often placed at the end of a sentence.

Bs:
pa .: í kelé traje mu prieto nu
sp .: no quiero un traje demasiado negro
dt .: I don't want a dress that is too black

Nominal system

Gender and number

As a Creole language, the Palenquero has no gender or number, i. H. the plural is not marked on the word and the grammatical gender is not present. Therefore, the Palenquero does not have a so-called "concordancia" ( congruence ). However, the plural can be expressed syntactically using the particle -ma which is placed in front of the noun.

Bs:
pa .: to ma ría bamo pa katahena
sp .: Todos los días vamos para Cartagena
dt .: Every day we go to Cartagena

Adjectives, nouns, pronouns

When it comes to nouns, morphemes derived from Spanish can be found in Palenquero, such as the reduced or enlarged form (e.g. yen-ito, mujer-ón). With the adjectives, the superlative is retained (e.g. ngandísimo).

The personal pronouns must always be set in Palenquero and cannot be left out as in Spanish.

Personal pronouns
Palenquero German
i-yo I
bo-uté húte you-you
ele-e he and she
suto we
bo-utére-enú Ye
ané she

The possessive pronouns always follow the noun:

Bs:
pa .: ngombe suto
sp .: nuestro ganado
dt .: our cattle

possessive pronouns
Palenquero German
mi-mindo my
bo your
ele-lo his-her
suto our
bo-utère your-you
ané her

The demonstrative pronouns come from Spanish.

Demonstrative pronouns
Palenquero German
ete this / he / it
ese those / r / s
aké the / that there

items

As usual with Creole languages, the definite article is often left out in the Palenquero. However, there are some exceptions such as E.g. in the time expressions: e sábaro (el sábado, Saturday), el año pasao (el año pasado, the last year). The indefinite articles are retained.

phonetics

The basic syllable structure of Palenquero is CV . This structure is a common structure for both Bantu and Creole languages. The vowel system consists of the vowels / aeiou /. As in Spanish, there is a tendency to pronounce [ɛ], [ɔ]. The consonants correspond to those of Spanish. There is an instability of the oppositions / r / ~ / l / ~ / d /, which goes back to the African substrate language.

Some examples that differ from Spanish:

Vowels:

  • o> u, e.g. B. at komé (comer)> kumé; kómo (como)> kúmo
  • e> a, z. B. with entónses (entonces)> antónse; yeßár (llevar)> laßá
  • i> e, e.g. E.g. imahínate (imagínate)> imahéņde

Consonants:

  • r> d after s, z. B. at kombersár (conversar)> kombedsá
  • r> l between vowels, e.g. B. in kerér (querer)> kelé
  • l> r between vowels and β, e.g. B. in embolβér (envolver)> emborbé

Half consonants :

  • y> i, in the word yo : yo (yo)> i
  • y> l, between vowels, e.g. B. at la fwe a yeβár (lo fue a llevar)> ahwé laβá
  • y> ñ, at the beginning of the word, e.g. B. with yamár (llamar)> ñamá

Syncope :

  • e to y in diphthongs, e.g. B. at tambyén (también)> tamín

Consonants:

  • r to b z. B. with ómbre (hombre)> ómbe

Aphereses :

  • ɛstá (está)> ta
  • ɛstándo (estando)> tándo
  • ɛskučaðo (escuchando)> kučá

Apocopes

  • dar (dar)> there
  • por (por)> po
  • kaminár (caminar)> kaminá

Aspiration such as B. after s before consonant, e.g. B. with pɛskáðo (pescado)> pɛhkáo.

The phoneme / k / has only one graph, 'k', and not, as in Spanish, 'c, qu, k'; Examples: kumina 'comida', pokke 'porque'. The phoneme / s / also has only one graph: 's'. The graphemes 'c' and 'z' do not exist; Examples: sena 'cena'. The phoneme / rr / has a special status in the Palenquero. It does not appear to be part of the original Creole system, but rather a consequence of its coexistence with the Spanish language. The phoneme / rr / is used both in the initial position and within the word. Examples: rrancho , sorra , garrotaso . Many words in Palenquero hardly differ phonetically from Spanish, e.g. B. pal. pokké - span. porque or pal. ombe - span. hombre. This explains why it is sometimes difficult to see which language is being spoken at a given moment.

Sample text with some of the words already listed:

Palenquero:
Kuando i miní en Pakua, entonse kamino a taba malo. Entonse ia ejperá pa entonse dejá kamino seká pa karro polé lendrao akí. I entonse ia komblá semento iia mandá pa la kasa. I así I a ndulá sei año kaminando. I asé kasita mi. Entonse ia palá akí.

Spanish:
Cuando volví en Pascua, entonces el camino estaba malo. Entonces yo esperé para entonces dejar secar el camino para poder entrar el carro aquí. Y entonces yo compré cemento y lo mandé para la casa. Y así yo duré seis años caminando. Yo hice mi casita. Entonces yo paré aqui.

Lexicons

Although most of the Palenquero lexicon is derived from Spanish, the words that are non-Spanish in origin have been found to be derived from Kikongo (from the Bantu family of languages). More than 150 words could be assigned to the Kikongo. These include words like: ngombe (cattle), moná (son / daughter), kukumbamana (youth group), nguba (peanut), kisila (taboo), lumbalú (funeral rite), chimbumbe (devil), kankamaná (boss). Code switching between Palenquero and Spanish can be done very quickly and easily thanks to their 99% common lexicon. There are often semantic changes such as the use of tener in impersonal use instead of haber .

a) pal. a tɛn ma

b) span. hay más

c) there is more

In older research it was assumed that 10% of the words in the Palenquero (mainly from the taboo area, flora, fauna and the environment) come from languages ​​of the Congo-Angola region. Scientists now assume that it is only 3%. It could be proven that of 12 assumed Bantuismen 6 with certainty of Iberoromanian origin, 4 only wrongly segmented, 1 invented and 2 additionally not very clear and the African influence in the lexicon is overrated. In recent years there has been a significant change in the use of the Palenquero. Already at the end of the 20th century it was found that more and more words of Spanish origin were being replaced by Bantu words. Examples of these "restored" forms are:

posá "house", which replaces casa

bumbilo replaces basura "garbage"

makaniá replaces trabaja "work"

This restoration of archaic and dying forms of the Palenquero is felt to be more authentic and represents the conscious efforts of the villagers, among whom are Palenquero language teachers. The aim is to bring these old words back to the students in order to maintain the African influence in the Palenquero and to prevent the Spanish influence from gaining the upper hand. Through the publication of a Palenquero dictionary, a Palenquero grammar and an annotated glossary , all those words are highlighted which differ greatly from the Spanish version. In this way, as many Spanish words as possible from the inventory of the Palenquero speakers are to be sold.

See also: Maroons , List of Creole Languages

literature

  • Arrázola, Roberto, 1970, Palenque, primer pueblo libre de América. Cartagena: Ediciones Hernández
  • Bartens, Angela, 1995, The Ibero-Romance-Based Creole Languages: Approaches to Linguistic Description, Frankfurt am Main et al., Lang Verlag
  • Bickerton, Derek, sobre los pretendidos portuguesismos de la lengua palenquera, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 37-41
  • Dieck, Marianne, Distribución y alcance de la negación en palenquero, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 149-167
  • Dieck, Marianne, la lengua de palenque: avances en la investigación de su estructura gramatical, in: Lingüstica y literature, no. 54, 2008. pp. 133–146
  • Holm, John, 1994, Pidgins and Creoles Volume II Reference Survey, Hunter College and Graduate Center, City University of New York, Cambridge University Press
  • Lipski, John M., Génesis y evolución de la copula en los criollos afroibéricos, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 65-91
  • Lipski, John M., The “new” Palenquero: revitalization and re-creolization, in: File-Muriel, Richard J, Orozco, Rafael, 2012, Colombian Varieties of Spanish, Lingüística iberoamericana Vol. 50, Iberoamericana Vervuert
  • Megenney, William W., 1986, El Palenquero, un lenguaje post-criollo de colombia, Bogotá, Biblioteca de Publicaciones del Instituto Caro y Cuervo
  • Patiño Rosselli, Carlos, Sobre origen y composición del criollo palenquero, Universidad Nacional, Bogotá, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 21-33
  • Patiño Rosselli, Carlos, 2000, Sobre Etnolingüística y otros temas, Santafé de Bogotá, Instituto caro y cuervo.
  • Perl, Matthias, Sobre origen y composición del criollo palenquero, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 117-125
  • Presidencia de la República de columbia, Ministerio de cultura / Instituto colombiano de antropología e historia, Retrieved from the Internet at: http://www.unc.edu/~restrepo/palenque/Palenque%20de%20San%20Basilio.pdf

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Arrázola, Roberto, 1970, Palenque, primer pueblo libre de América. Cartagena: Ediciones Hernández, p. 177
  2. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, Carlos, Sobre origen y composición del criollo palenquero, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag, p. 21 f
  3. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 22 f. / Holm, John, 1994, Pidgins and Creoles Volume II Reference Survey, Hunter College and Graduate Center, City University of New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 310 f.
  4. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 22 f.
  5. ↑ Holm, John, 1994, Pidgins and Creoles Volume II Reference Survey, Hunter College and Graduate Center, City University of New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 311
  6. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, Carlos, 2000, Sobre Etnolingüística y otros temas, Santafé de Bogotá, Instituto caro y cuervo, p. 308
  7. ↑ Lipski, John M., Génesis y evolución de la copula en los criollos afroibéricos, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag, p. 23
  8. ^ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 23
  9. ↑ Bickerton, Derek, Sobre los pretendidos portuguesismos de la lengua palenquera, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag, p. 35
  10. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 25
  11. ↑ Bickerton, p. 35
  12. ↑ Bickerton, p. 27
  13. ↑ Bickerton p. 36
  14. ↑ Bickerton p. 37
  15. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 30
  16. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 29
  17. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 29
  18. ↑ Lipski p. 67
  19. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 29
  20. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 31
  21. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 29
  22. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 30
  23. ↑ Megenney, p. 152
  24. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 31
  25. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 31
  26. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 31
  27. ↑ Patiño Rosselli p. 31
  28. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 29
  29. ↑ Meggeney, p. 139
  30. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 29
  31. ↑ Meggeney, p. 185
  32. ↑ Bartens, p. 272
  33. ↑ Meneggey p. 186
  34. ↑ Meneggey p. 187
  35. ↑ Bartens, p. 275
  36. ^ Dieck, Marianne, Distribución y alcance de la negación en palenquero, in: Moñino, Yves, Schwegler, Armin 2002, Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua. Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag. Pp. 149-166
  37. ↑ Meneggey, p. 156 f.
  38. ↑ Meneggey, p. 190
  39. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 29
  40. ↑ Bickerton, p. 39
  41. ↑ Meneggey, p. 164
  42. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 29
  43. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2002, p. 29
  44. ↑ Bartens, Angela, p. 269
  45. ↑ Megenney, William W., 1986, El Palenquero, un lenguaje post-criollo de colombia, Bogotá, Biblioteca de Publicaciones del Instituto Caro y Cuervo, p. 101 ff.
  46. ↑ Patiño Rosselli, 2000, p. 310 ff.
  47. ^ Dieck, Marianne, 2008, "La lengua de Palenque: avances en la investigación de su estructura gramatical", in: Lingüstica y literatura , No. 54, 2008. p. 139
  48. ↑ Megenney, p. 200
  49. ↑ Bartens, p. 277
  50. ↑ Lipski, p. 27 f.

Coordinates: 10 ° 6 ′ 13.28 "  N , 75 ° 11 ′ 59.86"  W.