Roman games in the empire
The time between 27 BC and Roman Empire is considered to be the Roman Empire . To 248 AD. It forms a period between the late Roman Republic , which was determined by expansion and crisis of adjustment, and late antiquity .
For the Roman emperors , the public games ( ludi publici ) had an impact on the population, because food and entertainment enjoyed a high reputation among the Roman people. By performing the games, the emperors were able to make themselves extremely popular with the people during their reign, distract them from poverty and prevent a constantly threatening uprising.
The high popularity and the increasing holding of these Roman games meant that especially under the Flavian dynasty (69 AD to 96 AD) a lot of building activity began in Rome. In the course of this, the large amphitheater, the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus in Rome were built. These special built objects show that never in history has a people celebrated so many festivals as that of the Romans.
Roman games
Roman games, or the concept of public displays, were one of the characteristics of Roman life that were known around the world with the executions on display. The spectacles had a very special attraction in terms of the audience, and this is evident from the immeasurable number of competitions.
In the empire , the princeps is often the sole organizer of the plays with his family. Its presence gives the drama a corresponding drama character, which was particularly expressed at Roman triumphs and imperial funerals. The emperor himself, the senators and the knights were forbidden to be active in the arena, because they threatened to lose their honor and thus a social decline.
With the increasing professionalism in the field of drama and especially the price for gladiators , the imperial treasury was confronted with problems. In the long term, the rulers reacted to this cost development with a kind of training in this profession in order to shift the burden. From this development, the Princeps emerged as the greatest owners of gladiator troops and gladiator schools with regard to gladiators and animal fighters .
The most important types of acting like races, hunts and gladiator fights were balanced in their frequency of representation. Sea battles could also be held, as the arena could be filled with water through an underground system. This finding can be traced back to the theater architecture in the empire.
The forms of presentation range from a harmless animal show and confrontation between humans and animals to the most unusual animal fights, but wild animals increased the desired horror of the games. The innovations in the Gladiature range, depending on the mood of the organizer, from a humane process to the intensification of cruelty.
The professional gladiators were popular with the people and were equipped with helmets and shields for their own protection. With the professional gladiators one differentiates between the " Retiarius ", who fought with a net and a trident against the " Mirmillo ". This was provided with a decorated helmet and symbolized the fight between fisherman and fish. There were also the “ Sannites ”, who were armed with a sword and a rectangular shield, and the “ Thracians ”, who fought with a short scimitar and a small round shield. In addition to these gladiators, there were the gladiators who were trained to kill each other. In these fights the fighters are exposed to the blows of the other with their whole bodies without any protection, helmet and shield would only delay the work of death.
In the amphitheater , also known as the hunting ground of the emperor and the Romans, not only fights between men and animals were carried out, hunts were also simulated. The enthusiasm, amazement and excitement of the audience with exotic animals, gladiators and hunters ensured the success of the spectacles. The people developed another enthusiasm from their passion for horses, the chariot races . Light wagons were pulled by two or four horses and the charioteer had to show great skill within seven laps to extend his lead by cutting tight corners. He, too, was able to gain an important name for himself with a success among the Romans.
The origin and development of the games in Rome
In the seven centuries of its existence, it seems, Rome has often profoundly changed the form of its leisure activities and in the process developed a leisure that is defined in a victory of individualism with its endeavor to find one's personal happiness with the help of leisure. With the development of theatrical events, Rome added the rights of the social elite to its aristocratic morals and compulsory workload.
The rural festivals and the regional peculiarities of the peninsula, which is characterized by agriculture and cattle breeding, existed well into the imperial era. The Romans found a firmly anchored system of leisure activities in their imperial territory, especially in Greece and in the east, and often adopted this, especially when there were similarities. This was the case, for example, between the charismatic show events from the Roman Republic and euergetism , which found its expression in the festive performances of the monarchical Orient. In this way a continuity can be established in the durability of the leisure structures from the Greeks to the Romans . In the empire, for example, as a manifestation of political loyalty, the plays resumed the original role of the Greek panegyris. The Roman Empire was awarded with the Principality from the west and the Dominat from the East two aligned to the popular organizations of the plays. With the imperial cult , which was initially imposed on the religiously neutral principate by the Hellenistic East, the Roman games were given a sacred character again during the imperial period, as is clear from the festival calendar and the ephemeris .
The acting culture in Rome was extraordinarily special because it represented a technical and cultural superiority of Rome over the barbarians . The Roman army was also inspired by the effect of the games from the center of the city in the early days of the imperial era. Furthermore, because of their popularity in Etruria , the chariot races became indigenous to Rome and the Olympic idea appeared in the form of athletic competitions in the Roman drama events of the imperial era. The monotony made the Roman people long for new and rare performances.
Games venues
A glance at a city plan reveals the city of Rome's obsession with circus and theater. The Colosseum was one of the most important objects for hosting the Roman Games. Gladiator fights, hunts and sea battles were held here. The Colosseum was the Flavian amphitheater, built under Emperor Vespasian and his successor Emperor Titus from AD 72 to AD 80. This type of construction became increasingly widespread as it was held. For the population it was the first address for leisure and entertainment. During the imperial era, restoration work was carried out on the Colosseum due to earthquakes and fires.
Another building object is the Circus Maximus , the largest building and also the largest sports stadium in Rome that was ever built for plays. These buildings symbolize the Roman city and Roman life during the imperial era.
The occasion for Roman games
In the Roman Empire, the public games gained great importance. A political consensus is based on the foundations of the empire and the specific political handling of the plays. These initially planned politically relevant annual festivals from the Augustinian calendar were supplemented over time by the emperors by setting new festivals. The emperors increased the duration and the number of games because they wanted to please the crowd.
In the Augustinian calendar, the birthdays of the living emperors Tiberius , Drusus and Germanius, the key dates in the career of Augustus and the birthday of the respective Princeps were planned for the celebration of the masses. Military games were often given on the emperor's birthdays, which was an occasion to affirm military loyalty . The triumphal procession from the imperial era was also an occasion for holding Roman games. The well-known Dacian triumph was rewarded with a celebration of 123 days in 107 AD, making it the longest Roman ceremony in history Over time, the assumption of power was also celebrated with public games for society. New games were played to the surprise of the people on the occasion of the ten years since the emperor came to power. The inauguration of buildings that the ruling families built for the Games was also celebrated with lavish festivities. This includes, for example, the construction of the Marcellus Theater in 12 BC. And the construction of the Colosseum in 80 AD. Approx. 5000 animals were sacrificed at its inauguration with a hundred-day festival. Since Claudian times, the execution of the sentence has even been made into a public spectacle in the form of an abbreviated gladiatorial fight, because gladiatorial fights were particularly popular among the Roman people and these were also fought in honor of some of the dead.
The reason for the frequent playing of the games was euergetism. So-called euergetism is based on the doctrine of the forward-looking care of the emperors for the people. Care and protection are inspired by Divine Providence . For example, gladiator fights were held, which the Roman people saw fighting and wounding before going to war. With these games in the arena, the rulers were able to stimulate and keep the Roman fighting spirit alive. At the same time, attempts were made to convince the goddess of vengeance and anger, named Nemesis , of the upcoming war by sacrificing the blood of the citizens in fictional battles.
Political significance of the public games
During the imperial era there was a close connection between the shows and the political structure, because the emperor recognized that parties and intriguers had a disruptive effect. The Roman drama was not only a cult celebration for Rome, but was also designed as a centralized or regional event to showcase power and greatness.
The plays belonged to the ruler's cult of the emperors and favored the political standardization and uniformity. The ruler had full powers in public and private space. The resulting absolutist type of state control led to a uniform equipment policy in Rome and the most distant provinces of his empire. The ruler thus had the power to carry out projects that served leisure time. For the purpose of standardization, Rome exported gladiator fights and amphitheaters to Greece and the East from the 1st century onwards. The worldwide order of the Roman drama was closely linked to imperialism that brought peace and unity.
In order for plays to have any significance in the politics of the empire, the retention of the republican festivals and games was just as much a prerequisite for imperial euergetism as the preservation of the buildings from the past.
In the early imperial era, acting politics tried to develop ideological arguments that did not just follow simple empiricism or social pressure. It was; To neglect serious endeavors is harmful, and to neglect pleasure is unpopular. The ruling emperors had the right to punish in public executions, which, however, led to an ambivalent expression in the population during the plays. Acting democracy ruled in criminal trials and jurisdictions that took place in the theater.
Influence of the people in the drama events
In the circus parties , the amphitheater coalitions , and the theater rings, differences of opinion naturally found expression. The Romans felt the need to belong to an acting faction. They left the field to another form of rivalry where authority and fame could be gained elsewhere. So the mass-oriented recreational program was used to lead political life.
The theater intrigues and circus factions concentrated the political aggressiveness of the people. During a play, spontaneous coalitions were formed , which sometimes depended on local conditions. For example, this includes the chariot races, in which the horses and chariots were divided into teams and each had its own politically-minded supporter. It was only a small step from expressing opinion to opposition .
Society came together through enthusiasm for the theater and passion for gladiators . Before a play, the groups' expectations of the performance were set before the course of the play was given a thrust in the theater or circus with the screaming of the masses.
The thrust of the shouting was particularly important in the fights of equal gladiators, because here the positive or negative reaction of the people was decisive for the fate of the gladiator. After the gladiator asked the emperor for mercy, he showed his thumb up or down according to the reaction of the people and thus sealed the gladiator's fate. By taking on political functions in the plays, there was a kind of right to general jurisdiction.
The Roman audience was not only able to object to the spectacle, Roman society also left out protests against grain and wine prices, as well as excessive tax demands against the ruler in the public games.
This drama program was financed by the emperor and no expense was spared. The municipal laws regulated the sequence of the plays and the observance of the social hierarchy. This morally considered order of politics is a social hierarchy of the public. The honorary staircase was reserved for the emperor in the Colosseum, the place of which was in the middle of one side of the podium. The emperor's place is also called Suggestum. The seats of the senators and other members of the imperial house were arranged around it. Then came the equestrian order and the military, families and servants, women, and on the outside the lower folk took their place in the arena.
Role of the games between emperor and people
The Roman people were largely guided by two things: the food supply and the games. The state power recognized that it gained as much popularity among the population with the entertainment events as with serious achievements.
It was said of the plebeians that they expected something out of their lives: first food and drink, then some comfort with the opportunity to relax after a day's work, and good entertainment. According to their ideas, public life should be festively enriched in a variety of ways through fame and greatness. The state had to take care of the amusement of the people so that there would be no disaffection. If that didn't work, it could lead to bloody riots , which was not uncommon.
For the emperor, the games were a suitable means of keeping the people under control. The plays helped against boredom and reduced aggression. And besides, the people were all the less concerned with politics if they could deal with the games. For this reason, the Christian emperors saw a political and social necessity in the games. They also tried to limit their harmful effects on public order and morality or on state finances and property. The games repeatedly represented a conflict between imperial dignity and social considerations.
The Roman emperor embodied the obligations of the state towards the people and assumed the obligations that arose from them. In the imperial era , the public games were then restricted due to their frequency. The emperors boasted in their name or in the name of their relatives. They tried hard to remain in the memories of their contemporaries with a brilliant picture of the festivities. In this way they secured their popularity with the people. Out of love for people and love for the gods, after the restriction, the emperors had these games organized at their own expense. At this time the system of the imperial cash register developed.
The temperament and the ideals of a ruler shine through in the respective leisure politics, because they could find expression in a politically motivated participation, a general lively enthusiasm for the drama events and in the form of a political showpiece of their own.
The people gathered for the spectacle could express their popularity to that ruler, but for this a ruler had to use all his ingenuity to prevent the flagging curiosity of a people. Innovations, variety or perfection were the promising means for this. For the emperor, what counted was superiority and rum, which presented the greatness of the people in the hierarchically structured theater.
With some types of drama there were critical allusions to the ruler, so that a certain political control was exercised on the stage. In the midst of peace, the people should be shown the image of war in order to inspire them. The theater, the circus and the amphitheater were often situational spaces for the people to express their opinions, for approval and for complaints.
Critical consideration of the games
Christian apologetics and pareneesis fought against mythical theology and pagan theater. They thought the games were unworthy of god worship and bad acting. The political system was not called into question until it was dissolved in the German Empire. The pursuit of popularity is sometimes dismissed as demagogy and slavery .
Since the Games were very popular with the Roman people, there was a great loss of military traditions and the dangers were enormous due to the huge number of people being played.
In the later Imperial Era, also known as the Neronian Age, the world of drama took on something immoral. The games would damage the general state of mind as well as the dignity of the imperial power. The charioteers who drove four-in-hand chariots through the circus were highly condemned. Morally, the chariot races were compared with the reputation of prostitution.
The ancient leisure culture was characterized by the solid political and social structure and the constant critical observation of the intellectuals . This is where the importance lies, which showed itself to be resistant to attempts at destruction and adaptation.
In the imperial era there were protests by intellectuals, not against the games in general, but against what had been made of the games from the republic up to the imperial era. The games became execution shows. It had become a bloody and bestial game of inhumanity.
It was not until 404 AD that the gladiature was successfully suppressed by Honorius , which the Romans enjoyed and were already used to.
Roman emperor
The Christian Empire, from Emperor Constantine to Theodosius, came to terms with the system of public games and its political justifications.
The world of acting with the gladiators even infected the family of Marcus Aurelius . Athletics were later adopted by Roman rulers such as Augustus , Nero and Domitian , who created a Roman form of the Olympic Games from it. No theater was built in the time of Augustus. Only Rome received the Claudian amphitheater and the only stadium in Rome, the stadium of Domitian, as an extension.
In everyday life, the two rulers Nero and Domitian in particular tried to transform their lives into a divine life by making it resemble an Olympic festival. It was an ubiquitous expression of imperial power.
The emperors from Augustus to Septimius Severus boasted of enriching the soldiers in the imperial military monarchy. Emperors wanted to anchor themselves in history, so did Emperor Commodus . He tried to symbolically rename the months of his festivities. The triumph celebrations of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, as well as Septinus Severus, were imprinted in the memory of the masses.
The Roman Emperor Commodus, whose rule ranged from 180 AD to 192 AD, was popular with the Roman people. He provided enough bread and games that the population wanted. Commodus had a preference for public chariot races and gladiator fights in private. The emperors were forbidden to take part in fighting in the arena, they were threatened with social decline. Commodus had a dissolute lifestyle because, contrary to the agreement, he entered the amphitheater in disguise and stabbed animals there. For this reason he was criticized by the actors with mocking verses. The Roman Emperor Commodus was therefore particularly known for his outrages in the circus.
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Tina Finkbeiner: Everyday life in Rome - bread and games . In: Lesson Draft . 1st edition. Grin, 2006, p. 22 .
- ↑ a b c d e f Jean-Marie Andre: Greek festivals, Roman games . In: Katharina Schmidt (Ed.): The leisure culture of antiquity (= Reclams Universal Library . Volume 20034 ). 1st edition. Reclam, Leipzig / Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-379-20034-4 , pp. 347 .
- ↑ Ingo Henneberg, Raphael Richarz, Jasmin M. Widauer: The ancient Rome and its buildings. In: The forum around the Romans. Ingo Henneberg, accessed December 2, 2017 .
- ^ Frank Bernstein: Origin and development of the public games in republican Rome . In: ludi puplici . tape 2 . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-515-07301-9 .
- ^ Ingo Henneberg, Raphael Richarz, Jasmin M. Widauer: Cities & Buildings in the Roman Empire. In: The forum around the Romans. Ingo Henneberg, accessed December 1, 2017 .
- ^ Heleen Groot: On the importance of the public games in Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Reflections on the self-determination of Roman society . LIT Verlag, Münster 2008, ISBN 978-3-8258-1560-8 , pp. 426 .
- ↑ Thomas Brugger: Bread and Games. ( Memento from December 2, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Christoph Driessen: recipe for success for Roman emperors. Bread and games. In: History-People-Events-Epochs. Bayard Media, March 17, 2016, accessed December 2, 2017 .