Verbal Behavior

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Verbal Behavior, book cover

Verbal Behavior is a book by Burrhus Frederic Skinner . It appeared in 1957 and is a theoretical analysis of linguistic behavior from the scientific point of view of behavior analysis . Linguistic behavior, according to Skinner (1957), is subject to the same principles as other behavior. Linguistic behavior is characterized by the fact that it is not reinforced directly by the physical environment, but only indirectly by the behavior of other people .

The book is considered to be one of the most important works of behaviorism . Nevertheless, verbal behavior in psychology is mainly viewed from a historical point of view; the actual content of the book is hardly taken into account. A translation of the book into German has not yet been published. Almost as well known as Verbal Behavior itself is the review of the book by the linguist Noam Chomsky from 1959, which is considered one of the initial spark of cognitivism and initiated the so-called cognitive turn in psychology .

overview

Skinner first defines linguistic behavior and explains the application of the behavioral conceptual apparatus to the field of language. Then the various types of verbal operants (these are the units of linguistic behavior) are presented and explained in detail. The generalization and discrimination of linguistic behavior causes the formation of new and more complex forms of linguistic behavior. Skinner places particular emphasis on the multi-causal causation of speech acts : Verbal behavior is only rarely triggered by one of the processes described by Skinner, and the variables of linguistic behavior can control more than one behavior. Under the heading Autoclitic Behavior , Skinner explains how the speaker's own linguistic behavior controls linguistic behavior. Finally, Skinner describes the self-control of linguistic behavior, i. H. how the speaker's linguistic behavior is controlled by his other behavior. Skinner also sees thinking as behavior.

Skinner goes on here a lot that he only touches on in Science and Human Behavior (original Science and Human Behavior ). However, the book does not contain any new laws of behavior that only served to explain linguistic behavior. The only new terms Skinner introduces are the basic verbal operants ( mand and tact , echoic and textual , intraverbal behavior, and the autoclitic ). From an epistemological point of view, verbal behavior is an economical theory. Skinner illustrates his assumptions with hundreds of examples throughout the book.

Understanding the content of Verbal Behavior is difficult without a basic understanding of behavior analysis (with Skinner writing easy-to-read English). In particular, the attempt to understand verbal behavior with the traditional understanding of the phenomenon of language in the back of one's mind fails, since the behavioral science approach is rather counter-intuitive. This article can only give a brief insight into the subject. Above all, Skinner's explanation of more complex linguistic behavior goes beyond the scope of an encyclopedia entry.

requirements

Skinner is one of the founders of behavior analysis . In Verbal Behavior he applies the findings of behavior analysis gained in experiments on animals and humans to linguistic behavior.

From a behavioral perspective, behavior is subject to control by the environment, or to put it another way: behavior is shaped by the (present and past) environment of the organism. A distinction must be made between the

  • Stimulus control - which means the influence of all events in the organism's environment that take place before the behavior, i.e. the preceding conditions of the behavior ( antecedents )

and the

  • Intensification - The influence of the time following the behavior of environmental events is meant, that the consequences of behavior ( Consequences ).

Using the ABC model (the "B" stands for Behavior , ie behavior), the shape and frequency are explained by behavior:

A → B → C

This is also known by the Dreifachkontingenz ( three-term-contingency ) of behavior. In simplified terms, the key message of this model can be paraphrased as follows: Behavior is triggered by previous conditions (the situation, the stimuli ) and sustained by consequences ( reinforcers ).

The concept of control gives rise to the misunderstanding that, from the point of view of behavior analysis, the organism behaves mechanically and externally, so to speak. Skinner, however, emphasizes the activity of the organism: the ( operant ) behavior of the organism is the starting point. Skinner puts it this way in the introduction:

"Men act upon the world, and change it, and are changed in turn by the consequences of their action."

“People behave in the world and change it. In return, they are changed by the consequences of their actions. "

- Burrhus Frederic Skinner : Verbal Behavior, p. 1

definition

  • Skinner defines linguistic behavior as behavior which does not directly affect the physical environment, but only has an effect through the behavior of another person ("Behavior which is effective only through the mediation of other persons", p. 2). When someone is thirsty, they can get a glass of water or say to another person, “Please give me water”. The latter behavior (saying “Please give me water”) only leads to reinforcement when someone else (a listener ) does something (brings water). The listener must have been conditioned to reinforce linguistic behavior (“the 'listener' must be responding in ways which have been conditioned precisely in order to reinforce the behavior of the speaker ”, p. 225), so he must be a member of the same language community be like the speaker.

An example shows how broad Skinner's definition is: A pigeon that has learned in a behavioral science experiment to peck at a switch when a green disk is visible is also not amplified directly by the physical environment, but by a “listener “, The experimenter who has been trained to reinforce the behavior of the pigeon in the given case (e.g. by giving it a ball of food). The pecking of the pigeon is therefore a linguistic behavior.

The objection to Skinner's definition is that it does not allow one to distinguish linguistic behavior from other social behavior. In addition, information about the learning history of someone other than the speaker (namely the listener) is required to apply the definition. However, a clear definition of linguistic behavior is just as impossible (according to Matthew Normand) as of aggressive behavior . Skinner's central message is that linguistic behavior is not that different from other behavior. If the definition includes, in addition to what is usually understood as language, also some cases that the layman would rather describe as social behavior, this is not a defect.

Skinner's definition also shows that linguistic behavior is not restricted to a specific form (or medium). The most common form of linguistic behavior is speaking ( vocal behavior), which also has the least impact on the physical environment (only rarely, according to Skinner, is it possible to collapse the walls of Jericho or to stop the sun in its course by speaking, P. 2). There are also the most varied forms of written language and sign language ; There are also languages ​​in which the “speaker” touches the skin of the “listener” ( Lormen ). Audible forms of linguistic behavior can also include clapping your hands (in theater) or blowing a horn (in battle). According to Skinner, the man at the telegraph also behaves linguistically when he moves his hand, as does anyone who points to blackboards with words - provided that this behavior changes the behavior of another person.

With this definition, Skinner distinguishes himself from the linguistic view of the problem of language : linguists deal less often with the linguistic behavior (or the linguistic action ) of a single person, but they mostly examine languages (i.e. the abstract linguistic behavior of many people). Traditionally it is also assumed that linguistic behavior (like other behavior as well) can only be explained by events within the organism: Language therefore serves to express “ideas” (or “ meaning ” or “ information ”). Skinner, on the other hand, sees the “meaning” of what is being said outside the organism (in the relationships between environmental events and behavior). Skinner's conception of language has therefore already been compared with that of Ludwig Wittgenstein (“The meaning of a word is its use in language”).

Basics

The verbal operant - the unity of linguistic behavior

Linguistic behavior occurs as a flow: for the purpose of investigation it must be broken down into units. The traditional units word , sentence , etc. would be appropriate here. However, Skinner needs an entity that is uniquely identifiable and that has a functional (i.e., regular) relationship with certain independent variables . The behavioral analyst does not determine the unit of behavior (the operant ) that he is investigating in advance, but rather according to whether it occurs as a function of a certain other variable (e.g. environmental variable). In the case of the verbal operant, this can mean that this unit has as little a feature as an intonation or a single sound as well as a complete phrase or sentence (such as "what you can get today, don't postpone it until tomorrow") can be. - Always provided that the verbal operant varies with another variable, i.e. H. it has a functional connection with it. An example: If the setting or omission of an accent causes the linguistic behavior to be reinforced or not, then the accent is the relevant unit of investigation. This of course strongly contradicts the customs of linguistics. However, this definition of verbal operant (every piece of linguistic behavior that is functionally related to another variable) is a consequence of the transfer of the methods of behavior analysis to the area of ​​linguistic behavior.

Verbal operants are not synonymous with words . Rather, they are the individual behavior of a certain person in a certain context. “Words”, on the other hand, are elements of an abstract system of language . Unlike many linguists, Skinner does not assume that the word acquires meaning , but that every linguistic behavior has unique precedent conditions and consequences. Each verbal operant must therefore be viewed individually as the product of a certain situation, as dependent on the environmental conditions that control whether and when the operant is uttered. A child's ability to say “biscuit” when the child sees the biscuit (Skinner calls this Tact ) is different from the ability to say “biscuit” when they are hungry (which Skinner calls mand ). The verbal operants are therefore functionally independent (even if their form is the same). Skinner's assumption that verbal operants are acquired functionally independently has now been confirmed experimentally many times. The ability to speak and listen (to understand) are functionally independent of one another.

Another unit of investigation is the linguistic repertoire . This denotes the potential behavior of the speaker. However, it is just as nonsensical to ask where a verbal operant is when it is not uttered as it is to ask where the patellar tendon reflex is when it is not triggered.

The likelihood of occurrence

Some verbal operants are more likely than others to occur. The probability (in the sense of the frequency of occurrence ) of a verbal operant in a certain situation is the decisive factor when examining linguistic behavior. What is meant is not the probability that z. B. a certain word is said at some point (as found in word frequency lists), but the probability of occurrence at a certain point in time, in a certain situation. This is also called the strength of an operant.

Verbal operants

Skinner sees linguistic behavior within the framework of the ABC model as determined by previous conditions (A as in antecendents ) and subsequent consequences (C as in consequences ). He identifies four different preceding conditions for linguistic behavior:

  • A state of deprivation or aversive stimulation , or a certain establishing operation (according to Jack Michael). The term establishing operation is preferable to the “motivational state” also used by Skinner, as it does not suggest any references to the internal states of the organism as the cause of the behavior and is also broader.
  • The characteristics of the physical environment.
  • The linguistic behavior of others.
  • Your own linguistic behavior.

On the other hand, there are two possible consequences:

  • Consequences specific to a particular form of deprivation or aversive condition, establishing surgery, and directly effective (affecting the speaker directly).
  • Social (or “educational”) consequences (ie the reaction of the audience, e.g. “true” or “yes” etc.).

Linguistic behavior is controlled by a certain combination of preceding conditions and consequences. This combination defines a linguistic operant. Skinner distinguishes the pure verbal operant from the multiple control .

Pure verbal operants

The mand

A verbal operant, which in a language community usually has a certain consequence in the speaker's environment, is referred to by Skinner with the artificial word Mand . He derives this term from words like demand and command .

  • A mand is a verbal operant which is only reinforced by a certain consequence and which is therefore under (functional) control of the associated motivational states or establishing operations.

In the ABC model, the mand can be described as follows:

  • A: The fore condition of the mand is a certain establishing operation.
  • B: The mand.
  • C: The consequence of the mand must be specific.

Example:

A person at the snack stand says: "One red and white French fries " and gets them too.

  • A: The person is hungry (motivational state) or has not eaten any food for a long time (establishing operation).
  • B: "One red and white French fries."
  • C: The person is given a serving of red and white fries.

In this case, the linguistic behavior “One red and white French fries” is a mandate, as it requires a certain establishing operation and is only reinforced by a certain consequence: The behavior “One red and white French fries” will only be used in similar situations ( e.g. at the same snack stand) occur more frequently if it is reinforced by a certain consequence (the fries red-white) (but not, if another consequence occurs, the person here e.g. no fries red- gets white).

A mand "describes" the desired reinforcement: "Listen!", "Stop!", "Say yes!" Etc. describe the desired behavior of the listener, "More soup!" Or "Salt!" Describes the amplifier as such.

The Tact

Your own linguistic behavior and the linguistic behavior of others is one of the most important triggers for linguistic behavior. Skinner treats these cases as echoic , textual, and intraverbal operants. Two types of stimuli are usually non-verbal : the (presence of the) audience and the entire physical environment.

Skinner uses the term tact for the case that the physical environment is a triggering stimulus for linguistic behavior . He derives the word from the "contact" ( contact off) occurs in the individual with the environment.

A tact is defined as a verbal operant in which a certain behavioral response of a certain form is evoked or at least strengthened by a certain object, feature of an object or event in the speaker's environment.

In the ABC model, the Tact can be described as follows:

  • A: The preceding condition is the presence of a particular stimulus (e.g., object). The condition of the organism or the operations that have been established are not relevant in this case.
  • B: The Tact.
  • C: The consequence is a non-specific, social reinforcement of the tact. While the mand “One-time French fries red-white” is only reinforced by a very specific consequence, a tact is maintained by generalized amplifiers.

Example:

A child sees a doll and says "doll".

  • A: The presence of a doll.
  • B: "Doll".
  • C: The mother praises the child (or smiles at them or keeps talking to them - the reinforcer is non-specific or a generalized reinforcer).

The tact is not the same as the reference of a word. A word relating to a specific speaker can also be used in situations where it is not a tact. For example, the word "Eisenhower" refers to a person by that name. It can only be a tact if Eisenhower is present. When Eisenhower is not present, "Eisenhower" is a textual, an intraverbal or an echoic. "Eisenhower" is always triggered by a stimulus, only there are many other possible stimuli besides Eisenhower. The person Eisenhower does not have to be present (or internalized, "driven back into the organism", as Chomsky writes) in some way (mental or hypothetical) when someone says "Eisenhower".

The intraverbal

The intraverbal is a linguistic behavior that is triggered by other linguistic behavior, but does not resemble the linguistic behavior of the other in form. Examples of intraverbals are the answers to questions such as "Where do you live?", "What is two plus two?" Or the continuation of a sentence such as "Unity and law and ...".

Intraverbal behavior is often quite simple, for example, when the stimulus “How are you?” Is followed by the usual answer “Thank you, good!”. For the most part, small talk is intraverbal behavior. But there are also more interesting cases, for example when the answer to “Why?” Is a sentence that almost always begins with “Because ...”. When a longer poem is recited, one part controls the next. If the speaker is interrupted, he loses control. The same goes for saying the alphabet, counting, and simply adding and multiplying.

The Echoic

The echoic is a linguistic behavior that is triggered by other linguistic behavior, the form of the behavior being similar to the linguistic behavior heard by the other. Echoic behavior is the repetition of what is heard (or parts of it) by the speaker. This usually happens without the speaker being explicitly asked to do so (“Say: XY !”): It would then not be a pure echoic, but an intraverbal echoic (i.e. multiple control of linguistic behavior). The echoic usually follows immediately after hearing. Fragmentary echoic behavior occurs when the speaker adopts an aspect of the other's language, such as their accent or mannerism. Often we whisper when the other is whispering without knowing the reason for the other whisper.

The explicit request for an echoic reaction by another is only one possibility why such reactions are shown: To comply with the request ("Say: Dog !") ("Dog") leads to the positive reaction of the other ("Yes, right!" ) or to end an aversive situation (the other stops asking the speaker to repeat the utterance). Just think of the foreign language lessons: If you manage to imitate the teacher's strange noises, you will be “released” and will not be the focus of your attention for the time being.

However, there are also less explicit forms of reinforcement of echoic behavior. From time to time you are reinforced for the repetition of linguistic behavior, for example when you repeat the words that someone else uses in a conversation: These linguistic forms are often more effective than our own words in making something understandable to the other. Echoic reactions often also serve as a filler that facilitates an answer, for example when the examinee repeats the examiner's words again before answering the question: The aversive situation of having to find an answer is temporarily avoided. Echoic reactions are also used to better remember what you have heard (for example, when you repeat a telephone number you have heard) or to ask the other person to repeat or explain a statement ("Dog? Which dog?").

The textual

The textual is a vocal response that is under the control of a non-auditory verbal stimulus (e.g. a text) or is triggered by it. The acquisition of textual behavior mostly occurs in an educational context: a person gives generalized conditioned reinforcers (e.g. praise) when a vocal reaction of the learner is in a certain proportion to the signs on the side. The textual behavior is maintained by the many collateral effects of reading. Textual behavior is automatically reinforced, as the reader derives many advantages from reading it (e.g. warnings of dangers, possible other reinforcers are pointed out, etc.). In fact, reading is intensified to such an extent that a normally educated adult cannot avoid reading a script that he perceives (a fact that advertisements, e.g. in subways or on the roadside , makes use of). Textual behavior can also be triggered by self-generated stimuli: You often create texts (write something down) in order to control your own future behavior.

The Autoclitic

The autoclitic is the most complex of all verbal operants. It is controlled by the speaker's linguistic behavior ( autoclitic means something like "self-leaning"). The influence on linguistic behavior is subtle. Compare the two sentences “I think it will rain” and “I am sure it will rain”. “I think” and “I am sure” are different autoclitics that have nothing to do with rain (a feature of the physical environment) but with an aspect on the part of the speaker that controls his or her linguistic behavior. “I think” and “I am sure” tell the listener something about the extent to which the speaker is convinced that it will rain. If it is not raining, the listener's reaction to the speaker will be different when he said “I think” than when he said “I am sure”.

Overview of the "pure" verbal operants

The following table (based on Frost and Bondy) summarizes the verbal operants mentioned.

Preceding condition Verbal operant consequence example
Establishing operation Mand Effective immediately The child comes into the kitchen where the mother is sitting and says: "I want milk" . The mother opens the refrigerator and gives the child milk.
Characteristics of the physical environment Tact Social A student looks out of the window, turns to his teacher and says: "It's hot today" . The teacher says “Right!”.
Linguistic behavior of others Intraverbal Social The mother asks the daughter: "What grade did you get in mathematics?" The daughter answers "A two" . The mother says: "Very nice!"
Linguistic behavior of others Echoic Social The teacher tells the students' behavior in English behavior ". The student repeats “behavior is behavior ” . The teacher says "Right".
Own linguistic behavior Autoclitic Effective immediately The child comes into the parents' bedroom at night and says " I think I'm sick ". The mother takes the child and takes it to the bathroom.

Skinner also knows a few other purely verbal operants, such as transcription (a text that triggers individual writing behavior) and, above all, various extensions of the tact (e.g. the metaphorical extension or the naming).

The multiple control of linguistic behavior

Pure verbal operants are rather rare, multiple control is more common, in which various combinations of preceding conditions and consequences are effective. Example: A teacher holds up a picture of a house and asks “What is that?”. The linguistic behavior of the student “A House” is now under the multiple control of the teacher's question (a linguistic behavior of another) and the image (a feature of the physical environment).

The following table (again based on Frost and Bondy) lists some complex verbal operants.

Preceding condition Verbal operant consequence example
  • Establishing operation
  • Characteristics of the physical environment
 Mand-Tact Effective immediately; Social The child comes into the kitchen, sees a plate of cookies and says: "Cookies!" . The mother gives the child a cookie.
  • Establishing operation
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Intraverbal mand Effective immediately; Social In the shop, in front of the school supplies, the mother asks the daughter “What color should your notebook cover be?”. The daughter answers "blue" . The mother buys the blue envelope.
  • Establishing operation
  • Characteristics of the physical environment
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Intraverbal Mand Tact Effective immediately; Social The mother shows the child a ball and asks the child “What do you want?”. The child answers “Ball!” . The mother gives the child the ball.
  • Characteristics of the physical environment
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Intraverbal Tact Social The father shows the child a picture in the photo album and asks "Who is that?" The child answers "Mama" .
  • Characteristics of the physical environment
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Echoic-Tact Social Standing at the window and watching a rain shower, the teacher says "rain". The student repeats "rain" .
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Intraverbal Echoic Social The therapist says, “What is two plus two? - Say four ”. The (e.g. autistic) child answers "four" and the therapist says "right".
  • Characteristics of the physical environment
  • Linguistic behavior of others
 Echoic Intraverbal Tact Social The therapist holds up a pen and says “Say pen !”. The child answers “pen” . The therapist says "Right".

History and reception

The impetus for Verbal Behavior came from a conversation between Skinner and philosophy professor Alfred North Whitehead at a Harvard dinner in 1934 . Skinner presented his views until Whitehead asked him to explain his linguistic behavior, if he was to say " No black scorpion is falling upon this table " (" No black scorpion is falling upon this table now"). Skinner began work on a behavioral interpretation of the language the night after the conversation with Whitehead. He dedicated much of 1944 to this project and summarized the results in a 1947 lecture at Columbia University and in his William James series of lectures at Harvard University. Copies of the lecture notes soon circulated among the students. During a research semester in 1955, which Skinner spent in Putney , Vermont , he wrote the raw text of Verbal Behavior . Skinner answered the Withehead's challenge in the last chapter of the book.

When writing Verbal Behavior , Skinner stuck to the terminology of behavior analysis , but in some cases also resorted to the terminology of linguistics. In doing so, he was mainly based on Leonard Bloomfield , but also on Otto Jespersen and Hermann Paul . Skinner, in turn, influenced Quine's philosophy of language with his conception of language .

Skinner considered Verbal Behavior to be his most important work. The publication of the book also coincides with the beginning of the so-called cognitive turn and the associated separation of behavioral analysis from psychology . The work was therefore hardly taken seriously in the broad psychological specialist public and is even today only cited from secondary sources .

In the first discussions, the book was received partly positively and partly mixed. The 1959 review of the book by the linguist Noam Chomsky is prominent . Chomsky judged that verbal behavior could not explain the phenomenon of language and that it oversimplified the subject. Skinner claims a general theory of behavior for himself and tries to show that it can also grasp the (extreme) case of linguistic behavior in a meaningful and consistent manner. But if you take Skinner literally (i.e. interpret the terms used as they were originally defined by him), he is obviously wrong for the realm of human language. If you take his analysis in a figurative sense, then it is nothing more than an everyday observation, which is put into the language of the laboratory (“This creates the illusion of a rigorous scientific theory with very broad scope, although in fact the terms used in the description of real-life and laboratory behavior may be mere homonyms ”, p. 31 - see also Chomsky's summary of his position in an interview with Javier Virues-Ortega 2006). Chomsky emphasizes that terms such as "stimulus", "probability" and "stimulus control" are inappropriate when applied to human behavior. The term “reaction strength” is a paraphrase for less impressive expressions such as “interest”, “intention”, “belief” etc. Skinner said about the process of confirming a scientific statement that additional variables are generated Increase the probability of the statement (“generating additional variables to increase its probability”, p. 425). If you take this definition literally, according to Chomsky (p. 34), the degree of confirmation of a scientific statement can be read from how loud, shrill or how often it is uttered.

Chomsky's criticism was later itself the subject of criticism from the behavioral analysis side. On the one hand, the criticism concerns the formal quality of Chomsky's discussion. Chomsky often quotes simply incorrectly or out of context. On the other hand, the content of the meeting is also rejected. According to Kenneth MacCorquodale, Chomsky assumes that in the “real world” (human language) different laws of nature apply than in the laboratory (which violates the principle of economy). In addition, Chomsky ignored or misunderstood the complexity of Skinner's analysis. Chomsky seems to believe that whenever Skinner mentions a controlling variable, he believes that he has found the only responsible variable - as if language were just a collection of reflexes. The multiple causation of speech acts, however, is a theme throughout the book. She is never mentioned in the meeting. David Palmer replied to the central statement of Chomsky's criticism that the same line of argument could be used against Newton's mechanics : if you take Newton's laws of motion literally, then they are (in everyday life) obviously wrong. If you take them figuratively, then they are nothing more than scientific-sounding paraphrases of the craftsman's rules of thumb. But Skinner did not intend to use his analysis as a metaphor. He made the strong prediction that the principles of behavior discovered in the laboratory could be applied in a technical sense to the interpretation of linguistic behavior.

The response to Chomsky's criticism, however, was hardly noticed outside of behavior analysis. As before, one can read in many psychological and linguistic textbooks that Chomsky refuted Skinner's approach to explaining language or even behavior analysis and behaviorism .

Verbal Behavior received a positive response from behavioral analysts . In particular, the behavior-analytical treatment of early childhood autism is based on verbal behavior , the relational frame theory and the acceptance and commitment therapy that emerged from it are further developments in the theory of verbal behavior . The frequency with which the work is cited has increased steadily over the years since its publication. From 1984 to 2004, Verbal Behavior was cited a total of 1093 times in scientific journals with peer-review procedures ( for comparison : Chomsky's Language and Mind from 1968 was cited 250 times in the same period, Brown's A First Language: The Early Stages from 1973 was cited 1343 times). The frequency of empirical studies based on Skinner's conception also increased. Their number almost quadrupled between 1989 and 2004, which can be seen as evidence of the vitality and fertility of the theory.

References

  1. ↑ a b c Noam Chomsky: Verbal Behavior. By BF Skinner . In: Language . tape 35 , no. 1 , 1959, ISSN  0097-8507 , p. 26–58 , doi : 10.2307 / 411334 ( chomsky.info [accessed March 24, 2014]).
  2. ^ Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Science and Human Behavior . Kindler, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-463-00562-X .
  3. ^ A b Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Science and Human Behavior . The Free Press, New York 1953, ISBN 0-02-929040-6 ( bfskinner.org ( Memento of June 13, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) [PDF; 1.6 MB ; accessed on March 24, 2014]). Science and Human Behavior ( Memento of the original dated June 13, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / bfskinner.org
  4. ^ "[A] s an interpretation, it is both parsimonious and an adequate account of the behavior of speakers" (p. 335), Henry D. Schlinger: The long good-bye: Why BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication . In: The Psychological Record . tape 58 , no. 3 , 2008, ISSN  0033-2933 , p. 329–337 ( opensiuc.lib.siu.edu [PDF; 643 kB ; accessed on March 24, 2014]).
  5. ^ Burrhus Frederic Skinner: The Behavior of Organisms . Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York 1938, ISBN 1-58390-007-1 .
  6. ↑ Steven C. Hayes, John T. Blackledge, Dermond Barnes-Holmes: Language and cognition: Constructing an alternative approach within the behavioral tradition . In: Steven C. Hayes, Dermond Barnes-Holmes, Bryan Roche (Eds.): Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian Account of Human Language and Cognition . Kluwer Academic / Plenum, New York 2001, ISBN 0-306-46600-7 , pp. 3-20 .
  7. ^ Matthew P. Normand: Much ado about nothing? Some comments on BF Skinner's definition of verbal behavior . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 32 , no. 1 , 2009, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 185-190 , PMC 2686985 (free full text).
  8. ↑ Ludwig Wittgenstein: Philosophical Investigations . Scientific Book Society, Frankfurt a. M. 2001, ISBN 3-518-22372-0 .
  9. ^ Willard F. Day: On certain similarities between the Philosophical Investigations of L. Wittgenstein and the operationism of BF Skinner . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 12 , no. 3 , 1969, ISSN  0022-5002 , pp. 489–506 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1969.12-489 , PMC 1338612 (free full text).
  10. ^ Willard F. Day: Radical behaviorism in reconciliation with phenomenology . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 12 , no. 2 , 1969, ISSN  0022-5002 , pp. 315–328 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1969.12-315 , PMC 1338563 (free full text).
  11. ^ Saul A. Kripke: Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language. An Elementary Exposition . Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1982, ISBN 0-674-95401-7 .
  12. ↑ Jennifer Lamarre, James G. Holland: The functional independence of mands and tacts . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 43 , no. 1 , 1985, ISSN  0022-5002 , pp. 5–19 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1985.43-5 , PMC 1348092 (free full text).
  13. ^ E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh: Verbal behavior at a procedural level in the chimpanzee . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 41 , no. 2 , 1984, ISSN  0022-5002 , pp. 223–250 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1984.41-223 , PMC 1348036 (free full text).
  14. ↑ Vicki L. Lee: Prepositional phrases spoken and heard . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 35 , no. 2 , 1981, ISSN  0022-5002 , pp. 227–242 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1981.35-227 , PMC 1333041 (free full text).
  15. ↑ Jack L. Michael: Establishing operations . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 16 , no. 2 , 1993, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 191-206 , PMC 2733648 (free full text).
  16. ↑ a b Lori Frost, Andy Bondy: A common language, Using BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior for assessment and treatment of communication disabilities in SLP-ABA . In: Journal of Speech and Language Pathology - Applied Behavior Analysis . tape 1 , no. 2 , 2006, ISSN  1932-4731 , p. 103–110 ( baojournal.com [PDF; 1.6 MB ; accessed on March 27, 2014]). baojournal.com ( Memento of the original dated December 29, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.baojournal.com
  17. ^ Burrhus Frederic Skinner: A psychological analysis of verbal behavior. Class notes made by R. Hefferline, Summer, 1947, in a course at Columbia University, given by BF Skinner . Ed .: Ralph F. Hefferline . ( lcb-online.org [accessed March 27, 2014]).
  18. ^ Terry J. Knapp: The Hefferline notes. BF Skinner's first public exposure of his analysis of verbal behavior . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 25 . The Association for Behavior Analysis International, 2009, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 99-107 , PMC 2779073 (free full text).
  19. ^ Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Verbal Behavior . William James Lectures. Harvard University Press, Harvard University 1948 ( lcb-online.org [accessed March 27, 2014]).
  20. ^ Charles E. Osgood : Verbal Behavior by BF Skinner. Language in the objective mode . In: Contemporary Psychology . tape 3 , 1958, ISSN  0010-7549 , p. 209-212 .
  21. ↑ a b Javier Virues-Ortega: The case against BF Skinner 45 years later. An encounter with N. Chomsky . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 29 , no. 2 , 2006, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 243-251 , PMC 2223151 (free full text).
  22. ^ Leonard Bloomfield: Language . Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York 1961 (first edition: 1933).
  23. ^ Maria Amelia Matos, Maria de Lourdes R. da F. Passos: Linguistic sources of Skinner's Verbal Behavior . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 29 , no. 1 , 2006, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 89-107 , PMC 2223173 (free full text).
  24. ^ Maria de Lourdes R. da F. Passos, Maria Amelia Matos: The influence of Bloomfield's linguistics on Skinner . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 30 , no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 133–151 , PMC 2203636 (free full text).
  25. ^ Maria Amelia Matos, Maria de Lourdes R. da F. Passos: Emergent verbal behavior and analogy: Skinnerian and linguistic approaches . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 33 , no. 1 , 2010, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 65-81 , PMC 2867506 (free full text).
  26. ^ MN Hegde: Meaning in behavioral analysis . In: Journal of Speech and Language Pathology - Applied Behavior Analysis . tape 2/3 , no. 4/1 , 2008, ISSN  1932-4731 , p. 1–24 ( baojournal.com [PDF; 2.0 MB ; accessed on October 13, 2014]). baojournal.com ( Memento of the original dated December 29, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.baojournal.com
  27. ^ Burrhus Frederic Skinner: A Matter of Consequences . Knopf, New York 1983, ISBN 0-394-53226-0 .
  28. ^ Theodor Ickler : Skinner and Skinner. A comparison of theories . In: Language and Cognition . tape 13 , 1994, ISSN  0253-4533 , pp. 221–229 ( verhalten.org [accessed October 14, 2014]).
  29. ^ "Skinner's book is both elegant and admirable," p. 213, Charles W. Morris : Verbal Behavior by BF Skinner . In: Contemporary Psychology . tape 3 , 1958, ISSN  0010-7549 , p. 212-214 .
  30. ↑ Terry J. Knapp: Verbal Behavior. The other reviews . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 10 , 1992, ISSN  0889-9401 , pp. 87-95 , PMC 2748596 (free full text).
  31. ↑ Barry Eshkol Adelman: An underdiscussed aspect of Chomsky (1959) . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 23 , 2007, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 29-34 , PMC 2774611 (free full text).
  32. ↑ Kenneth MacCorquodale: On Chomsky's Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior . In: Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior . tape 13 , no. 1 , 1970, ISSN  0021-8855 , pp. 83–99 , doi : 10.1901 / jeab.1970.13-83 , PMC 1333660 (free full text).
  33. ^ Jack Michael, David C Palmer, Mark L Sundberg: The multiple control of verbal behavior . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 27 , 2011, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 3-22 , PMC 3139558 (free full text).
  34. ^ David C. Palmer, On Chomsky's appraisal of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. A half century of misunderstanding . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 29 , no. 2 , 2006, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 253-267 , PMC 2223153 (free full text).
  35. ↑ Mark L. Sundberg, Jack Michael: The benefits of Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior for children with autism . In: Behavior Modification . tape 25 , no. 5 . SAGE Publications, October 2001, ISSN  0145-4455 , p. 698-724 , doi : 10.1177 / 0145445501255003 .
  36. ↑ Simon Dymond, Benigno Alonso-Álvarez: The selective impact of Skinner's Verbal Behavior on empirical research: A reply to Schlinger (2008) . In: The Psycholocical Record . tape 60 , no. 2 , 2010, ISSN  0033-2933 , p. 355-360 ( opensiuc.lib.siu.edu [PDF; 108 kB ; accessed on October 14, 2014]).
  37. ↑ Simon Dymond, Denis O'Hara, Robert Whelan, Aoife O'Donovan: Citation analysis of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, 1984-2004 . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 29 , no. 1 , 2006, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 75-88 , PMC 2223169 (free full text).
  38. ^ Noam Chomsky: Language and Mind . Harcourt, Brace & World, New York 1968, ISBN 3-518-27619-0 .
  39. ^ Roger Brown: A First Language. The early stages . Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1973, ISBN 0-674-30326-1 .
  40. ↑ Matthew P. Normand, Jeffrey F. Fossa, Alan Poling: Publication trends in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior: 1982-1998 . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 17 , 2000, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 167-173 , PMC 2755453 (free full text).
  41. ↑ Allyne Marcon-Dawson, Sara M. Vicars, Caio F. Miguel: Publication trends in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior: 1999-2008 . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 25 , 2009, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 123-132 , PMC 2779072 (free full text).
  42. ^ Rachael A. Sautter, Linda A. LeBlanc: Empirical applications of Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior with humans . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 22 , 2006, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 35-48 , PMC 2774593 (free full text).
  43. ↑ Mark R. Dixon, Stacey L. Small, Rocio Rosales: Extended analysis of empirical citations with Skinner's Verbal Behavior 1984-2004 . In: The Behavior Analyst . tape 30 , no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0738-6729 , p. 197-209 , PMC 2203633 (free full text).
  44. ↑ although the impact factor of the articles in the leading journal The Analysis of Verbal Behavior is rather low 0.267 to 0.600, according to Anna Ingeborg Petursdottir, Sean P. Peterson, Anja C. Peters: A Quarter century of The Analysis of Verbal Behavior: An analysis of impact . In: The Analysis of Verbal Behavior . tape 25 , 2009, ISSN  0889-9401 , p. 109-121 , PMC 2779076 (free full text).

literature

original

  • Burrhus Frederic Skinner: Verbal Behavior . Copley Publishing Group, Acton 1957, ISBN 1-58390-021-7 .

Secondary literature

  • A. Charles Catania: Behavioral Analysis of Language . In: H. Zeier (Ed.): Pawlow and the consequences (=  The psychology of the 20th century ). tape 4 . Kindler, Zurich 1977, ISBN 3-463-24001-7 , p. 342–382 (a brief introduction in German).
  • Linda J. Hayes, Philip N. Chase (Eds.): Dialogues on Verbal Behavior . Context Press, Cambridge MA 1991, ISBN 1-878978-00-4 (Several authors discuss the meaning and scope of verbal behavior ).
  • Steven C. Hayes, Linda J. Hayes, Masaya Sato, Koichi Ono (Eds.): Behavior Analysis of Language & Cognition . Context Press, Cambridge MA 1994, ISBN 1-878978-18-7 (A representation of the behavioral perspective on the area of ​​language and cognitions, which is based on Skinner's book).
  • Mark L. Sundberg, Jack Michael: A Collection of Reprints on Verbal Behavior . Behavior Analysts, Pleasant Hill CA 1998, ISBN 0-9745151-4-0 (reports on different approaches to further develop the basic ideas of Verbal Behavior ).

Web links

General

reception

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on December 27, 2006 in this version .