Western design
Western design was a military operation with which Oliver Cromwell tried in the spring of 1655 to take advantage of the ongoing Spanish-French War and to get the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean under English rule. The actual goals of the operation, the islands of Hispaniola and Cuba , could not be conquered, however, and Jamaica was captured instead . At the same time, the company represents the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War and a further step towards the British Empire . The name Western Design was probably coined by Cromwell himself and referred on the one hand to the operation presented here as well as to other related plans to establish an own colonial empire in the Caribbean.
prehistory
England had emerged victorious from the Anglo-Dutch War in 1654 and had made peace in the Treaty of Westminster and enforced the navigation acts. Despite the peace agreement, the trade interests of both states, especially in the overseas territories, were still opposing and harbored new potential for conflict. The maintenance costs of the navy had also risen immensely as a result of the expansion of the navy and were hardly affordable for the state budget. However, due to the still smoldering civil war and the conflict with the Netherlands , it was still necessary in the eyes of the Protectorate. At the same time, the French-Spanish War was still raging on the continent, which had been openly fought again since 1653.
causes
In the circumstances, Cromwell decided that England must join the European conflict for its own benefit. Initially, the question arose as to whether England should turn against Spain or France or whether both sides should pay for its neutrality . But it was decided as early as 1653 that future actions would have to be directed against Spain and its colonial possessions. Of these, the British government had chosen the large Caribbean islands as the target of a military mission. The reasons for this were their wealth and strategic location. The latter was particularly significant because the English possessions in North America and the Caribbean had declared themselves neutral during the Civil War and Cromwell could not be sure of their loyalty . Smuggling with the Netherlands also flourished in the Caribbean islands, despite the observance of the navigational acts agreed in the Peace of Westminster. The fleet, strengthened by the war with the Netherlands, offered itself as a suitable means, as it was only a useless cost factor in peacetime and its maintenance was hardly guaranteed. A successful overseas enterprise would have meant, in addition to financial and domestic political effects, a strengthening of the foreign policy position and sensible use of unused resources. There is also the assumption in science that Cromwell hoped that Spain would not seek open war with the English naval power in its explosive strategic position and would therefore tacitly accept the loss of the islands.
Preparations
After the idea of attacking the Spanish colonies arose in April 1654, the decision to attack was made in July. By the time the fleet left in December, 2,500 men, including only 1,000 experienced soldiers, had been drawn into 5 regiments and placed under the command of Robert Venables . The fleet of 18 war and 20 transport ships was led by General William Penn . Compared to the men of the invading army, who were neither provided with suitable clothing nor with sufficient supplies, they were adequately armed for the upcoming undertaking. Due to the duration and extent of the preparations, the equipment of the fleet could not be kept secret, despite all efforts. Even a diversion by sending a fleet to the Mediterranean could not silence the rumors. The Spanish government was apparently already informed of the threat when the fleet left, even if it did not know the exact intentions.
execution
Stay in Barbados
The planned stopover on the English island of Barbados , which had been around since 1625, turned out to be detrimental to the entire company. Probably intended by Cromwell as a signal for the other colonies, it was urgently needed as a means of replenishing and replenishing supplies, and of recruiting more men. Upon the arrival of the fleet, Cromwell's order to confiscate all smugglers' ships was carried out and several Dutch sailors were arrested in the port and around Barbados. The islanders profiting from the smuggling and the recruitment of volunteers from other English colonies delayed the onward journey so that the warnings from Spain could reach the Caribbean provinces and make preparations.
Attack on Hispaniola
On April 13, the association reached Hispaniola , but was unable to land at the mouth of the Jaina River near Santo Domingo , as General Venables thought, due to unfavorable winds , but had to switch to the much more distant Nizao River. The poor equipment of the invasion troops was immediately noticeable in the, for most men unknown, tropical climate and the dense vegetation. After a short time, the number of failures increased, and General Venables also fell ill. When the troops finally reached Santo Domingo on April 17th, the poor training and morale of the troops became apparent, only the rapid intervention of marines could prevent a defeat in a Spanish ambush. Another attack on April 24 also failed due to the Spanish troops and the ineffective use of the warships. Here the leadership problems between the Navy and the invading army became clear. The superior equipment and supply of the fleet also attracted increasing attention after the ten-day stay and caused controversy and envy among the men of the invading army. After this defeat and the worsening of the poor supply situation, the two commanders decided to give up the company.
Taking Jamaica
After all troops had embarked on May 5th, the fleet set course for Jamaica, which Penn and Venables had set as a new destination. On May 17th, the capital of the island of Santiago de la Vega (today Spanish Town ) was reached. The barely fortified city and its garrison surrendered to the superior English forces without a fight. Some of the Spanish troops fled into the forests of the hinterland to wage a guerrilla war, at the same time many plantation owners released their slaves and armed them, which caused short-term chaos outside the cities. These freedmen, known as the Maroons , like the rest of the Spanish soldiers, quickly withdrew to the northern part of the island. With the support of Cuba, they fought repeatedly with the British troops until 1658. The latter suffered after the capture of the island, as well as on Hispaniola, from the climate and their poor education and food. The food available on the island was insufficient to supply the army, so the soldiers slaughtered large parts of the livestock. The two commanders left the island they had just captured within a short period of time, probably to blame the other at Cromwell for the disastrous outcome of the company. Some of the troops and twelve ships remained on the island. Both generals were accused of deserting after arriving in England . After a brief detention in the Tower , however, they were reinstated in their commandos.
consequences
Since the capture of Hispaniola was unsuccessful and only the less important Jamaica could be conquered, Western design was a failure from the point of view of the time. In the long run, however, the new colony proved to be economically efficient and strategically valuable. With Spain warned and clearly stronger than expected, open conflict became inevitable. An official declaration of war by Cromwell did not take place until October 26, 1655. In this he justified the attack with disregard of the earlier peace treaties on the part of Spain and the crimes against the indigenous population . In the Anglo-Spanish War that followed, they allied with France and were able to further expand and secure the English possessions. However, since the operation was viewed as a failure by contemporaries, it could not contribute to the consolidation of Cromwell's rule.
literature
- Hans-Christoph Junge: Naval politics and revolution, the emergence of English naval power during the rule of Cromwell . Stuttgart. 1980.
- Charles P. Korr: Cromwell and the new model foreign policy: England's policy toward France, 1649-1658 , Berkeley, 1975.
- Bernd Martin: Foreign trade and foreign policy of England under Cromwell . In: Historische Zeitschrift 218 (1974), pp. 572-592.
- Nicholas AM Rodger: The command of the ocean: a naval history of Britain, 1649-1815 . London, 2004.
- Claudia Schnurmann : Atlantic Worlds . English and Dutch in the American-Atlantic area; 1648-1713. Böhlau, Cologne 1998, ISBN 3-412-09898-1 (also habilitation at the University of Göttingen , 1996).