Henry VIII and Sweet corn: Difference between pages

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they werent masrried when anne became pregannt with elizabeth so techniacally she was his mistress
 
 
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[[Image:vegCorn.jpg|thumb|Husked sweetcorn]]
{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
'''Sweet corn''' (''Zea mays'' var. ''rugosa''<ref>{{cite web | title = Sweet Corn | publisher = [[Oregon State University]] | work = Horticulture 233 webpage | url = http://oregonstate.edu/dept/hort/233/sweetcorn.htm }}</ref>), also called '''indian corn''', '''sweetcorn''', '''sugar corn''', '''pole corn''', or simply '''corn''', is a variety of [[maize]] with a high [[sugar]] content. Sweet corn is the result of a naturally-occurring [[recessive]] [[mutation]] in the genes which control conversion of sugar to starch inside the [[endosperm]] of the corn kernel. Unlike [[field corn]] varieties, which are harvested when the kernels are dry and fully mature, sweet corn is picked when immature and eaten as a [[vegetable]], rather than a [[cereal|grain]]. Since the process of maturation involves converting sugar into [[starch]], sweet corn stores poorly and must be eaten, [[Canning|canned]], or frozen before the kernels become tough and starchy.
{{redirect|Henry VIII}}
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Sweetcorn (seeds only) | kJ=360 | protein=3.2 g | fat = 1.2 g | carbs=19 g | fiber=2.7 g | sugars=3.2 g | potassium_mg=270 | magnesium_mg=37 | iron_mg=0.5 | vitC_mg=7 | vitA_ug=10 | folate_ug=46 | source_usda=1 | right=1 }}
{{Infobox British Royalty|majesty
| name = Henry VIII
| title = King of England and Ireland
| image = Henry-VIII-kingofengland 1491-1547.jpg
| reign = 21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547
| coronation = 24 June 1509
| predecessor = [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]
| successor = [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
| spouse =
[[Catherine of Aragon]]<br />m. 1509, ann. 1533<br />
[[Anne Boleyn]]<br />m. 1533, ann. 1536<br />
[[Jane Seymour]]<br />m. 1536, died 1537<br />
[[Anne of Cleves]]<br />m. 1540, ann. 1540<br />
[[Catherine Howard]]<br />m. 1540, ann. 1542<br />
[[Catherine Parr]]<br />m. 1543, widowed 1547<br />
| issue = [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]<br>[[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry FitzRoy]]<br>[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]<br>[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
| issue-link = #Marriages and issue
| issue-pipe = Among others
| titles = ''His Majesty'' The King<br />''His Grace'' The King<br />The Prince of Wales<br />The Duke of York<br />Prince Henry
| royal house = [[House of Tudor]]
| father = [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]
| mother = [[Elizabeth of York]]
| date of birth = {{birth date|1491|6|28|df=yes}}
| place of birth = [[Palace of Placentia|Greenwich Palace]], [[Greenwich]]
| date of death = {{death date and age|1547|1|28|1491|6|28|df=yes}}
| place of death = [[Palace of Whitehall]], London
| place of burial = [[St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle|St George's Chapel]], [[Windsor Castle]]
|}}


==History==
'''Henry VIII''' (28 June 1491 &ndash; 28 January 1547) was [[King of England]] and [[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]], later [[King of Ireland]] and claimant to the [[Early Modern France|Kingdom of France]], from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second monarch of the [[House of Tudor]], succeeding his father, [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]].
[[Image:YoungSweetCorn.jpg|thumb|Young sweetcorn]]
Sweet corn occurs as a spontaneous mutation in field corn and was grown by several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes. The [[Iroquois]] gave the first recorded sweet corn (called "Papoon") to European settlers in 1779.<ref>"Sweet Corn Production." Jonathan R. Schultheis, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service,
[[North Carolina State University]]. Revised 12/94. [http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-13.html]</ref> It soon became a popular vegetable in southern and central regions of the
United States.


Commercial production in the 20th century saw the rise of the ''se'' (''sugary enhanced'') mutants, which are more suitable for local fresh sales, and in the 1950s the ''sh2'' (''shrunken-2'') gene was isolated that minimized production of the enzyme that converts sugar to starch.<ref>[http://www.news.uiuc.edu/II/03/0807/sweetcorn.html]"Supersweet sweet corn: 50 years in the making." Debra Levey Larson. ''Inside Illinois'' Vol. 23, No. 3, Aug. 7, 2003. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign news bureau.</ref> There are currently hundreds of varieties, with more constantly being developed.
Henry VIII was a significant figure in the history of the English monarchy. Although in the first parts of his reign he energetically suppressed the Protestant revolt against the [[Roman Catholic Church]], a revolt which traced some of its roots back to [[John Wycliffe]] of the 14th century, he is more often known for his ecclesiastical struggles with Rome. These struggles ultimately led to him separating the Anglican Church from Roman authority, the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], and establishing the English monarch as the [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]]. Although some claim he became a Protestant on his death-bed, he advocated Catholic ceremony and doctrine throughout his life; royal backing of the English Reformation was left to his heirs, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], while his daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] fought to return papal authority over the church. Henry also oversaw the legal union of England and [[Wales]] (see [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]]). He is noted for being [[Wives of Henry VIII|married six times]].


==Anatomy==
==Early years (1491-1509) ==
[[Image:Elizabethyork2-1-.jpg|thumb|left|Henry's mother, Elizabeth]]
[[Image:MatureSweetCorn.jpg|thumb|The same rows of corn 41 days later at maturity.]]
The [[fruit]] of the sweet corn plant is the corn ''kernel'', a type of fruit called a [[caryopsis]]. The ''ear'' is a collection of kernels on the ''cob''. The ear is covered by tightly wrapped leaves called the ''husk''. ''Silk'' is the name for the styles of the [[pistil]]late flowers, which emerge from the husk. The husk and silk are removed by hand, before boiling but not before roasting, in a process called ''husking'' or ''shucking''.
Born in [[Greenwich Palace]], 'Henry VIII was the third child of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[Elizabeth of York]].<ref name=croft128>Crofton, p.128.</ref> Of the young Henry's six siblings, only three — [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]] (the [[Prince of Wales]]), [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]], and [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]] — survived infancy. In 1493, Henry was appointed Constable of [[Dover Castle]] and Lord Warden of the [[Cinque Ports]]. In 1494, he was created [[Duke of York]]. He was subsequently appointed [[Earl Marshal of England]] and [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]]. Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<ref name=croft129>Crofton, p.129</ref> As it was expected that the throne would pass to Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother, Henry was prepared for a career in the Church.<ref>Churchill, p.29</ref>


==Consumption==
===Death of Arthur===
The kernels are boiled or steamed, and usually served with [[butter]] and [[salt]]. In Europe, China, Korea, and Japan, they are often used as a [[pizza]] topping. [[Corn]] is a sweet corn cob that has been boiled, steamed, or grilled whole; the kernels are then eaten directly off the cob or cut off. ''Creamed corn'' is sweet corn served in a milk or cream sauce. Sweet corn can also be eaten as [[baby corn]].
In 1502, Arthur died suddenly of a disease recorded as "[[sweating sickness]]", a mystery ailment which to this day still draws theories. Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his brother Henry, who then became Prince of Wales. Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering Henry, Prince of Wales, in marriage to Prince Arthur's widow, [[Catherine of Aragon]], the youngest surviving child of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile|Queen Isabella of Castile]].<ref>Crofton, p.126</ref> [[Image:catherineAragon.jpg|thumb|left|170px|Catherine as a young widow, by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s court painter, [[Michael Sittow]], c.1502]]


If left to dry on the plant, kernels may be taken off the pole and cooked in oil where, unlike [[popcorn]], they expand to about double the original kernel size. See [[Corn nuts]]. A soup may also be made from the plant, called sweet corn soup.
In order for the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from the [[Pope]] was normally required to overrule the impediment of [[affinity (canon law)|affinity]]. Catherine swore that her marriage to Prince Arthur had been unconsummated. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage.


Pole corn puddings are found in nearly every area of the world. Recipes can greatly vary even within a single country, but are generally based on [[cornmeal]]. Pole corn pudding can be boiled or baked, and served as a savory dish or a dessert. Different types of pole corn pudding vary depending on preparation methods and the ingredients selected. A well known form of pole corn pudding is the Italian [[polenta]]. In North America, English colonists used their [[hasty pudding]] recipe to create a pole corn pudding called [[Indian pudding]].
The impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella, induced [[Pope Julius II]] to grant dispensation in the form of a [[Papal bull]]. So, 14 months after her young husband's death, Catherine found herself betrothed to his even younger brother, Henry. Yet by 1505, Henry VII lost interest in a Spanish alliance, and the younger Henry declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his consent.


The meal of the pole corn is also consumed as a [[mush]] in many countries. In the Southern [[United States]] this is known as [[grits]] or pole corn stew, and is a popular method of pole corn consumption.
Continued diplomatic maneuvering over the fate of the proposed marriage lingered until the death of Henry VII in 1509. Only 17 years old, Henry married Catherine on 11 June 1509, and on 24 June 1509, the two were crowned at [[Westminster Abbey]]. Two days later, he arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Sir [[Richard Empson]] and [[Edmund Dudley]]. They were groundlessly charged with [[high treason]] and in 1510 were executed. This was to become Henry's primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way.<ref name=croft128/>


The [[corn dog]] or ''pole dog'' is a type of [[sandwich]] consisting of a [[hot dog]] coated in [[Pole corn]] [[Batter (cooking)|batter]] and [[deep frying|deep fried]] in hot [[Cooking oil|oil]], although some are [[baking|baked]]. Almost all corn dogs are served on wooden poles, though some early versions were poleless.
==France and the Hapsburgs (1509-1525)==
[[Image:HenryVIII 1509.jpg|thumb|left|Eighteen year-old Henry after his coronation in 1509.]]
Henry was a [[Polymath|Renaissance Man]] and his court was a center of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamourous excess, epitomised by [[The Field of the Cloth of Gold]]. He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His best known musical composition is ''[[Pastime with Good Company]]'' or ''The Kynges Ballade''. He was also known to have been an avid gambler and [[dice]] player. He excelled at sports, especially [[jousting]], [[hunting]], and [[real tennis]]. He was also known for his strong dedication to [[Christianity]].<ref name=croft129/>{{Henryviiiwives}}


==Varieties==
In 1511, [[Pope Julius II]] proclaimed a [[League of Cambrai|Holy League]] against France. This new alliance rapidly grew to include not only Spain and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], but also England. Henry decided to use the occasion as an excuse to expand his holdings in northern France. He concluded the Treaty of Westminster, a pledge of mutual aid with Spain against France, in November 1511 and prepared for involvement in the [[War of the League of Cambrai]]. In 1513, Henry invaded France and his troops defeated a French army at the [[Battle of Guinegate (1513)|Battle of the Spurs]]. His brother-in-law [[James IV of Scotland]] invaded England at the behest of [[Louis XII of France]],<ref>Guicciardini, ''History of Italy'', 280.</ref> but failed to draw Henry's attention from France. The Scots were disastrously defeated at the [[Battle of Flodden Field]] on 9 September 1513. Among the dead were the Scottish King and the battle ended Scotland's brief involvement in the war.
{{Mergefrom|Super sweet corn|date=August 2007}}
[[Image:Truckbed of Corn.jpg|thumb|Sweetcorn that has not been husked yet, headed to market.]]
''[[Shoepeg corn]]'' is a particularly small, white variety of sweet corn. Kernels that are allowed to mature to hard grains are used as seed corn or ground into [[corn flour]].


Open pollinated (non-[[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]) corn has largely been replaced in the commercial market by sweeter, earlier hybrids, which also have the advantage of maintaining their sweet flavor longer. Some older varieties are best when cooked within 30 minutes of harvest [http://www.burpee.com/jump.jsp?itemID=559&itemType=CONTENT_ARTICLE]. Despite their short storage life, many open pollinated varieties such as [http://www.burpee.com/shopping/product/detailmain.jsp?itemID=899&itemType=PRODUCT&RS=1&keyword=50864A Golden Bantam] remain popular for home gardeners and specialty markets, or are marketed as [[heirloom seed]]s. Although less sweet, they are often described as more tender and flavorful than hybrid varieties.
On 18 February 1516, Queen Catherine bore Henry his first child, Princess Mary of England, who later reigned as Mary I of England.


===Mistresses===
=== Genetics ===
There are several different genetic mutations responsible for various types of sweet corn. Early varieties, such as those used by American Indians, were the result of the mutant ''su'' ("sugary") [[allele]].<ref>"Sweet Corn Production." Jonathan R. Schultheis, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service,
Contrary to his popular image, Henry may not have had many affairs outside marriage, and the names of only three mistresses are completely undisputed: [[Elizabeth Blount|"Bessie" Blount]] and [[Mary Boleyn]], and Anne Boleyn (She slept with him a litle while before their marriage)
[[North Carolina State University]]. Revised 12/94. [http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-13.html]</ref> They contain about 5-10% sugar by weight. Another form of the same [[gene]], the ''se'' or "sugary enhanced" allele, was responsible for so-called "Everlasting Heritage" varieties, such as "Silver Queen". Varieties with the ''se'' alleles have a much longer storage life and contain 12-20% sugar.<ref>"Sweet Corn." [[Oregon State University]] Horticulture 233 webpage. [http://oregonstate.edu/dept/hort/233/sweetcorn.htm]</ref> Beginning in the 1950s, plant breeders at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] began developing 'supersweet' varieties, which occur due to a mutation at another gene (the ''sh'' or "shrunken" gene).<ref>[http://www.news.uiuc.edu/II/03/0807/sweetcorn.html]"Supersweet sweet corn: 50 years in the making." Debra Levey Larson. ''Inside Illinois'' Vol. 23, No. 3, Aug. 7, 2003. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign news bureau.</ref>


All of the alleles responsible for sweet corn are [[recessive]], so it must be isolated from any field corn varieties that release pollen at the same time; the [[endosperm]] develops from genes from both parents, and [[heterozygous]] kernels will be tough and starchy. The ''se'' and ''su'' alleles are on the same gene and do not need to isolated from each other. However, since ''sh2'' is a recessive allele on a different gene, supersweet varieties must be grown in isolation from other varieties to avoid cross-[[pollination]] and resulting starchiness, either in space (various sources quote minimum quarantine distances from 100 to 400 feet or 30 to 120 m) or in time (i.e., the supersweet corn does not pollinate at the same time as other corn in nearby fields).
Blount gave birth to Henry's illegitimate son, [[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry FitzRoy]]. The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to legitimatizing him. In 1533, FitzRoy married [[Mary Howard, duchess of Richmond and Somerset|Mary Howard]], Anne Boleyn's first cousin, but died three years later without any successors. At the time of FitzRoy's death, the king was trying to pass a law that would allow his otherwise illegitimate son to become king.
[[Mary Boleyn]] was the sister of [[Anne Boleyn]] who later married Henry. She is thought to have been his mistress at some point between 1519 and 1526. There has been speculation that Mary's two children, [[Catherine Carey, Lady Knollys|Catherine]] and [[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon|Henry]] were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proven and the King never acknowledged them as he did Henry Fitzroy.


In colder areas, a fourth type of sweet corn, known as ''sy'' (for ''synergistic''), is often grown. This variety of corn mixes ''se'' and ''sh2'' kernels on the same cob and does not require isolation.
He had an affiar with Elizabeth Fitzwalter, who was sent to a nunnery after it was discovered she had been the King's mistress.


== Health benefits ==
Henry also seems to have had an affair with one of the Shelton sisters in 1535. It was traditionally assumed that this was [[Margaret Shelton|Margaret]], but recent research has led to the claim that this was actually [[Mary Shelton|Mary]].
[[Image:Sweet corn.jpg|thumb|250px|]]

Cooked sweet corn retains significant [[antioxidant]] activity, which can substantially reduce the chance of [[heart disease]] and [[cancer]]. "There is a notion that processed fruits and vegetables have a lower nutritional value than fresh produce. Those original notions seem to be false, as cooked sweet corn retains its antioxidant activity, despite the loss of vitamin C," says Rui Hai Liu assistant professor of [[food science]] at [[Cornell University]]. The researchers found cooked sweet corn increases levels of [[antioxidants]]. The scientists measured the antioxidants' ability to quench [[free radicals]], which cause damage to the body from [[oxidation]]. Cooked sweet corn also releases increased levels of [[ferulic acid]], which provides health benefits, such as battling [[cancer]]."When you cook it, you release it, and what you are losing in [[vitamin C]], you are gaining in [[ferulic acid]] and total [[antioxidant]] activity."<ref>[http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Aug02/CornLiu.bpf.html Cooking sweet corn boosts its ability to fight cancer and heart disease by freeing healthful compounds, Cornell scientists find]</ref>
There are also grounds for suspecting that he had an affair with one of the duke of Buckingham's sisters in 1510, and an unknown woman in 1534. Alison Weir has argued that, aside from these five affairs, there were also numerous other short-term and secret liaisons, most of them conducted in the king's river-side mansion of Jordan House.<ref> Weir, ''Henry VIII: King and Court'' (2002) </ref>

==English Reformation (1533-1540)==
[[Image:Anneboleyn2.jpg|thumb|180px|Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen, painted after her death.]]
Meanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all [[Statute in Restraint of Appeals|appeals to Rome]] and exacted the penalties of [[præmunire]] against all who introduced papal bulls into England. The Commons also prevented the Church from making any regulations without the King's consent. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of launching sentences of [[excommunication]] against the King and Cranmer,<ref>Historians disagree on the exact date of the excommunication; according to [[Winston Churchill]]'s ''History of the English Speaking Peoples'', the bull of 1533 was a draft with penalties left blank and was not made official until 1535. Others say Henry was not officially excommunicated until 1538, by [[Pope Paul III]], brother of [[Cardinal Franklin de la Thomas]].</ref> declaring at the same time the archbishop's decree of annulment to be invalid and the marriage with Anne null and void. The [[nuncio|papal nuncio]] was withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome were broken off.<ref name="cepop">{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Clement VII|Clement VII]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}</ref> Several more laws were passed in England. The [[Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534]] required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The [[Act of Supremacy|Act of Supremacy 1534]] declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England" and the [[Treasons Act 1534]] made it high treason, [[Capital Punishment|punishable by death]], to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. In response to the excommunications, the [[Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations|Peter's Pence Act]] was passed in and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your [[His Grace|Grace]]" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.<ref>Lehmberg.</ref> In defiance of the Pope, the [[Church of England]] was now under Henry’s control, not Rome's.

===Personal troubles===
{{Anglicanism}}
The king and queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. For his part, Henry disliked Anne’s constant irritability and violent temper. After a [[Pseudocyesis|false pregnancy]] or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as [[Christmas]] 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine.<ref>Williams, p.138.</ref>

[[Image:Cromwell,Thomas(1EEssex)01.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Thomas Cromwell arranged the plot that brought down Boleyn.]]

Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed. The most prominent resisters included [[John Fisher]], [[Bishop of Rochester]], and Sir [[Thomas More]], Henry's former [[Lord Chancellor]], both of whom refused to take the oath to the King and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tower Hill, just outside the [[Tower of London]], while the usual punishment for such traitors would have been to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. These suppressions in turn contributed to further resistance among the English people, most notably in the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]], a large uprising in northern England in October of the same year. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues to his attention, then invited the rebel leader, [[Robert Aske (political leader)|Robert Aske]] to a royal banquet. At the banquet, Henry asked Aske to write down what had happened so he could have a better idea of the problems he would 'change'. Aske did what the King asked, although what he had written would later be used against him as a confession. The King's word could not be questioned (as he was held as God's chosen, and second only to God himself) so Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. However, because Henry saw the rebels as [[traitors]], he did not feel obliged to keep his promises. The rebels realised that the King was not keeping his promises and rebelled again later that year, but their strength was less in the second attempt and the King ordered the rebellion crushed. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. Dissolution of the remaining, larger monasteries followed a subsequent authorising act by Parliament in May 1539. [''This last sentence seems misplaced in the context of the paragraph. e.g. 'Dissolution of the remaining, larger monasteries...'; what monasteries?'']

=== Execution of Anne Boleyn ===
On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Upon hearing the news of her death, Henry and Anne reportedly decked themselves in bright yellow clothing, yellow being the colour of mourning in Spain at the time. Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine's death. The queen was pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Her life could be in danger, as with both wives dead, Henry would be free to remarry and no one could claim that the union was illegal. Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured. It seemed for a time that the King's life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the queen she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old. This happened on the very day of Catherine’s funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.<ref>Williams, p.141.</ref>

Given the King's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536.<ref>Ashley, p.240.</ref> Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536.<ref>Williams, chapter 4.</ref> As Anne recovered from what would be her final miscarriage, Henry declared that his marriage had been the product of witchcraft. The King's new mistress, [[Jane Seymour]], was quickly moved into new quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother being refused a prestigious court honour, the [[Order of the Garter]], which was instead given to Jane Seymour's brother.<ref>Williams, p.142.</ref>

Five men, including Anne's own brother, were arrested on charges of [[incest]] and [[treason]], accused of having sexual relationships with the queen.<ref>Williams, pp.143-144.</ref> On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested and taken to the [[Tower of London]]. She was accused of adultery, incest and [[high treason]].<ref>Hibbert, pp.54-55.</ref> Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death by the peers. [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford|George Boleyn]] and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. On the morning of 19 May 1536 at 8 o'clock, the queen was executed before the public. This was the first public execution of an English queen.<ref>Tudor chronicler Edward Hall</ref> She knelt upright, in the French style of executions. The execution was swift and consisted of a single stroke.<ref>Hibbert, p.60.</ref>

[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 032b.jpg|thumb|120px|Jane Seymour would become Henry's third wife.]]

===Birth of a prince===
One day after Anne's execution in 1536 Henry became engaged to Jane Seymour, one of the Queen's [[ladies-in-waiting]] to whom the king had been showing favour for some time. They were married 10 days later. At about the same time as this, his third marriage, Henry granted his assent to the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Act 1535]], which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one unified nation. This was followed by the [[Succession to the Crown Act 1536|Act of Succession 1536]], which declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The king was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his [[will (law)|will]]. In 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, [[Edward VI of England|Prince Edward]], the future Edward VI. The birth was difficult and the queen died at [[Greenwich Palace]] on 24 October 1537 from an infection. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for an extended period. Henry considered Jane to be his "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought. He was buried next to her at his death.

==Final years (1540-1547)==
In 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to saints. At this time, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure the succession. [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]], promoted to 1st Earl of Essex, suggested [[Anne of Cleves|Anne]], the sister of the Protestant [[Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg|Duke of Cleves]], who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the king. Although it has been said that he painted her in a more flattering light, it is unlikely that the portrait was highly inaccurate, since Holbein remained in favour at court. After regarding Holbein's portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a "Flanders Mare."

[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 026.jpg|left|thumbnail|Henry was shown the above picture of [[Anne of Cleves]]]]
Henry wished to annul the marriage in order to marry another. The [[Duke of Cleves]] had become engaged in a dispute with the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. Upon the question of marital sex, she testified that her marriage had never been consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before retiring. All impediments to an annulment were thus removed.

The marriage was subsequently dissolved and Anne received the title of "The King's Sister," and was granted [[Hever Castle]], the former residence of the Boleyn family. [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Cromwell]], meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the marriage and was subsequently [[attainder|attainted]] and beheaded. The office of Viceregent in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled.

[[Image:HowardCatherine02.jpeg|right|thumbnail|A picture of [[Catherine Howard]], Henry's fifth wife.]]
On 28 July 1540, (the same day Cromwell was executed) Henry married the young [[Catherine Howard]] (also found as Katherine), Anne Boleyn's first cousin. He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier, [[Thomas Culpeper]]. She also employed [[Francis Dereham]], who was previously informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. [[Thomas Cranmer]], who was opposed to the powerful Roman Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the king's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication. When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with Thomas Culpeper. As was the case with Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not technically have been guilty of adultery, as the marriage was officially null and void from the beginning. Again, this point was ignored, and Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. She was aged between 17 and 22 when she died (opinions differ as to her year of birth). That same year, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. [[Abbot]]s and [[prior]]s lost their seats in the [[House of Lords]]; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The [[Lord Spiritual|Lords Spiritual]], as members of the clergy with seats in the [[House of Lords]] were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the [[Peerage|Lords Temporal]].

[[Image:CatherineParr.jpg|left|thumbnail|[[Catherine Parr]], Henry's sixth and final wife. ]]
Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow [[Catherine Parr]], in 1543. She argued with Henry over religion; she was a reformer, but Henry remained a conservative. This behaviour nearly proved her undoing, but she saved herself by a show of submissiveness. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Princess Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament put the daughters back in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales, though they were still deemed illegitimate.
The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will.

A [[mnemonic]] for the fates of Henry's wives is "divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived". An alternative version is "King Henry the Eighth, to six wives he was wedded: One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded". (Or, more succinctly, "Two beheaded, one died, two divorced, one survived.") The phrase may be misleading. Firstly, Henry was never divorced from any of his wives; rather, his marriages to them were annulled. Secondly, four marriages—not two—ended in annulments. The marriages to Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were annulled shortly before their executions and, although her marriage to Henry was annulled, [[Anne of Cleves]] survived him, as did Catherine Parr.

The cruelty and tyrannical egotism of Henry became more apparent as he advanced in years and his health began to fail. A wave of political executions, which had commenced with that of [[Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk|Edmund de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk]] in 1513, ended with [[Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey|Henry Earl of Surrey]], in January, 1547, underlined it. According to Holinshed, the number of executions in this reign amounted to 72,000—higher figures are given by some authorities.

===Death and succession===
[[Image:The Old Palace of Whitehall by Hendrik Danckerts.jpg|thumb|300px|King Henry VIII died in the Palace of Whitehall in 1547]]

Late in life, Henry became grossly overweight (with a waist measurement of 54 inches/137 cm) and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical inventions. He was covered with suppurating boils and possibly suffered from [[gout]]. His obesity dates from a [[jousting]] accident in 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. This prevented him from exercising and gradually became ulcerated. It undoubtedly hastened his death at the age of 55, which occurred on 28 January 1547 in the [[Palace of Whitehall]], on what would have been his father's 90th birthday. He expired soon after uttering these last words: "Monks! Monks! Monks!"<ref>Davies, p. 687.</ref>

The well known theory that Henry suffered from [[syphilis]] was first promoted approximately 100 years after his death{{Fact|date=November 2007}}, but has been disregarded by most serious historians. Syphilis was a well-known disease in Henry's time, and although his contemporary, [[Francis I of France]] was treated for it, the notes left from Henry's physicians do not indicate that the English king was.

A more recent and credible theory suggests that Henry's medical symptoms, and those of his older sister [[Margaret Tudor]], are also characteristic of untreated [[Type II diabetes]]. Henry VIII was buried in [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor|St George's Chapel]] in [[Windsor Castle]], next to his wife Jane Seymour. Over a hundred years later [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] was buried in the same vault. Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his royal heirs sat on the English throne, and all three left no descendants.

Under the [[Third Succession Act|Act of Succession 1543]], Henry's only surviving legitimate son, Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]. Since Edward was only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power. Henry's will designated 16 [[executor]]s to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of 18. The executors chose [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford]], Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be [[Lord Protector]] of the Realm. In default of heirs to Edward, the throne was to pass to Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the [[Mary I of England|Princess Mary]] and her heirs. If Mary's issue also failed, the crown was to go to Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, [[Elizabeth I of England|Princess Elizabeth]], and her heirs. Finally, if Elizabeth's line also became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased younger sister, [[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk]]. The descendants of Henry's sister [[Margaret Tudor]] - the royal family of [[Scotland]] - were therefore excluded from succession according to this act.

== The children of Henry VIII ==

<div align="center"><gallery>

Image:Mary1England1544.jpg|[[Mary I of England|Mary I]], daughter of [[Catherine of Aragon]].

Image:Fitzroy.jpg|[[Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry Fitzroy]], son of Henry's mistress, [[Elizabeth Blount]].

Image:El bieta I lat 13.jpg|[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], daughter of [[Anne Boleyn]].

Image:Edward VI of England c. 1546.jpg|[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], son of [[Jane Seymour]].

</gallery></div>

==Legacy==
Henry VIII is known to have been an avid [[gambling|gambler]] and [[dice]] player. In his youth, he excelled at sports, especially [[jousting]], [[hunting]], and [[real tennis]]. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and [[poetry|poet]]; his best known piece of music is ''[[Pastime with Good Company]]'' ("The Kynges Ballade"). He is often reputed to have written Greensleeves although we are now almost certainly sure he did not. The King was also involved in the original construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including [[Nonsuch Palace]], [[King's College Chapel, Cambridge]] and [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[London]]. Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as [[Christ Church, Oxford]], [[Hampton Court Palace]], the [[Palace of Whitehall]], and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]. He founded [[Christ Church Cathedral School]], Oxford in 1546. The only surviving piece of clothing worn by Henry VIII is a [[cap of maintenance]] awarded to the Mayor of [[Waterford]], along with a bearing sword, in 1536. It currently resides in the [[Waterford Museum of Treasures]]. A suit of Henry's armour is on display in the Tower of London. In the centuries since his death, Henry has inspired or been mentioned in numerous [[Cultural depictions of Henry VIII of England|artistic and cultural works]].

===Royal Finances===
Henry inherited a vast forture from his father [[Henry VII]] who had, in contrast to his son, been frugal and careful with money. This fortune was estimated to £1,250,000 (£375 million by today's standards)<ref>Weir, p.13</ref>. Much of this wealth was spent by Henry on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces. Tudor monarchs had to fund all the expenses of government out of their own income. This income came from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like [[tonnage and poundage]], granted by parliament to the king for life. During Henry's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant (around £100,000)<ref>Weir, p.64</ref>, but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war. Indeed it was war and Henry's dynastic ambitions in Europe that meant that the surplus he had inherited from his father was exhuasted by the mid-1520s. Whereas Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars. The Dissolution of the Monasteries also provided a means to replenish the treasury and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £120,000 (£36 million a year).<ref>Weir, p. 393</ref> But Henry had had to debase the coinage in 1526 and 1539 in order to solve his financial problems and despite efforts by his ministers to reduce the costs and wastage at court, Henry died in debt.

===Church of England===
Though mainly motivated by dynastic and personal concerns, and despite never really abandoning the fundamentals of the Roman Catholic Church, Henry ensured that the greatest act of his reign would be one of the most radical and decisive of any English monarch. His break with Rome in 1533-34 was an act with enormous consequences for the subsequent course of English history beyond the [[Tudor dynasty]]. Not only in making possible the transformation of England into a powerful (albeit very distinctive) nation; but also in the seizing of economic and political power from the Church by the aristocracy, chiefly through the acquisition of monastic lands and assets -- a short-term strategy with long-term social consequences. Henry's decision to entrust the regency of his son Edward's minor years to a decidedly reform-oriented regency council, dominated by Edward Seymour, most likely for the simple tactical reason that Seymour seemed likely to provide the strongest leadership for the kingdom, ensured that the English Reformation would be consolidated and even furthered during his son's reign. Such ironies marked other aspects of his legacy.

[[Image:Henry VIII Coin.jpg|thumb|250px|Silver [[groat]] of Henry VIII, minted c. 1540. The reverse depicts the quartered arms of England and France]]
He fostered humanist learning and yet was responsible for the deaths of several outstanding English humanists. Obsessed with securing the succession to the throne, he left no legitimate heirs but a young son (who died before his sixteenth birthday) and two daughters adhering to adversarial religions. The power of the state was magnified, yet so too (at least after Henry's death) were demands for increased political participation by the middle class. Henry worked with some success to make England once again a major player on the European scene but depleted his treasury in the course of doing so, a legacy that has remained an issue for English monarchs ever since.

===English navy===
Together with [[Alfred the Great]] and [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the [[Royal Navy]]. His reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a few spectacular [[great ship]]s such as ''[[Mary Rose]]''), dockyards (such as [[HMNB Portsmouth]]) and naval innovations (such as the use of [[cannon]] on board ship - although [[archers]] were still deployed on medieval-style [[forecastle]]s and bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannons were used). However, in some ways this is a misconception since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a [[navy]] in the sense of a formalised organisation with structures, ranks, and formalised munitioning structures but only in the sense of a set of ships. [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] still had to cobble together a set of privately owned ships to fight off the [[Spanish Armada]] (which consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships) and in the former, formal sense the modern British navy, the [[Royal Navy]], is largely a product of the Anglo-Dutch naval rivalry of the seventeenth century. Still, Henry's reign marked the birth of English naval power and was a key factor in England's later victory over the Spanish Armada.

Henry's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion. To guard against this he strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses (such as [[Dover Castle]] and, also at [[Dover, Kent|Dover]], [[Moat Bulwark]] and [[Archcliffe Fort]] which he personally visited for a few months to supervise, as is commemorated in the modern exhibition in the keep of Dover Castle). He also built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned gun batteries) along Britain's southern and eastern coasts from [[East Anglia]] to [[Cornwall]], largely built of material gained from the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|demolition of monasteries]]. These were also known as Henry VIII's [[Device Forts]].

==Style and arms==
{{House of Tudor|henry8}}
[[Image:England Arms-label ermine.svg|right|thumb|200px|Henry's [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|shield]] as [[Duke of York]]]]
Henry VIII was the first English monarch to regularly use the style "Majesty", though the alternatives "Highness" and "Grace" were also used.

Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of [[God]], [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Lord of Ireland]]". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from [[Pope Leo X]] rewarding a book by Henry attacking Martin Luther, the royal style became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, [[Fidei Defensor|Defender of the Faith]] and Lord of Ireland". Following Henry's excommunication, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an [[Act of Parliament]] declared that it remained valid; and it continues in royal usage to the present day.

In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in [[Earth]] Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the Church of England" changed to "of the Church of England and also of [[Church of Ireland|Ireland]]".

In 1541, Henry had the [[Irish Parliament]] change the title "Lord of Ireland" to "King of Ireland" with the [[Crown of Ireland Act 1542]], after being advised that many [[Irish ethnicity|Irish people]] regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to the King [[Henry II of England]] by [[Pope Adrian IV]] in the twelfth century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship. The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats. The style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.

Henry's [[motto]] was ''Coeur Loyal'' (true heart) and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word "loyal". His emblem was the [[Tudor rose]] and the Beaufort portcullis.

As Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father (i.e. those of the kingdom), differenced by a ''label of three points ermine''. As king, Henry VIII's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by his predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three [[Fleur-de-lis|fleurs-de-lys]] Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England)''.
{{clr}}

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel top|width=100%}}
{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Henry VIII of England'''
|2= 2. [[Henry VII of England]]
|3= 3. [[Elizabeth of York]]
|4= 4. [[Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond]]
|5= 5. [[Lady Margaret Beaufort]]
|6= 6. [[Edward IV of England]]
|7= 7. [[Elizabeth Woodville]]
|8= 8. [[Owen Tudor]]
|9= 9. [[Catherine of Valois]]
|10= 10. [[John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset]]
|11= 11. [[Margaret Beauchamp of Bletso]]
|12= 12. [[Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York]]
|13= 13. [[Cecily Neville]]
|14= 14. [[Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers]]
|15= 15. [[Jacquetta of Luxembourg]]
|16= 16. [[Maredudd ap Tudur]]
|17= 17. [[Margaret ferch Dafydd]]
|18= 18. [[Charles VI of France]]
|19= 19. [[Isabeau of Bavaria]]
|20= 20. [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset]]
|21= 21. [[Margaret Holland]]
|22= 22. [[John de Beauchamp, 3rd Baron Beauchamp]]
|23= 23. [[Edith Stourton]]
|24= 24. [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge]]
|25= 25. [[Anne de Mortimer]]
|26= 26. [[Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland]]
|27= 27. [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland]]
|28= 28. Sir [[Richard Wydevill]]
|29= 29. [[Elizabeth Bodulgate]]
|30= 30. [[Peter I, Comte de Saint-Pol]]
|31= 31. [[Margaret de Baux]]
}}</center>
{{ahnentafel bottom}}

==Marriages and issue==
{| border="1" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!width=40%|Notes
|-bgcolor=d5d5d5
!colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine of Aragon]]''''' (married 11 June 1509 annulled 23 May 1533)
|-
|[[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]]||1 January 1511||22 February 1511||
|-
|''Henry, Duke of Cornwall''||colspan=2|December 1514||died within one month of birth
|-
|[[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]]||18 February 1516||17 November 1558||married 1554, [[Philip II of Spain]]; no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Anne Boleyn]]''''' (married 25 January 1533 annulled 1536) beheaded
|-
|[[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]||7 September 1533||24 March 1603|| never married, no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Jane Seymour]]''''' (married 30 May 1536; died 25 October 1537)
|-
|[[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]||12 October 1537||6 July 1553||
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Anne of Cleves]]''''' (married 6 January 1540 annulled 1540)
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Catherine Howard]]''''' (married 28 July 1540 annulled 1541{{Fact|date=April 2007}}) beheaded
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Catherine Parr]]''''' (married 12 July 1543; died 5 September 1548)
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Elizabeth Blount]]'''''
|-
|[[Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset]]||15 June 1519||18 June 1536||illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard; no issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By [[Mary Boleyn]] ''''' <br><small>(Some writers, such as [[Alison Weir (historian)|Alison Weir]], now question whether Henry Carey was fathered by Henry VIII. <ref>Weir, p.216.</ref>)</small>
|-
|[[Catherine Carey, Lady Knollys]]||c. 1524 ||15 January 1568||married Sir [[Francis Knollys]]; had issue
|-
|[[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon|Henry Carey, Baron Hunsdon]]||4 March 1526 ||23 July 1596||married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issue
|-
!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|'''''By Mary Berkeley ''''' <br><small> (There is no evidence to prove he was Henry's son except through eye witness accounts, who claimed a resemblance to the King.) </small>
|-
|[[John Perrott]]||c. 1527 ||3 November 1592||married 1. Anne Cheney; 2. Jane Pruet, both of whom produced issue. He also had issue with his mistress Sybil Jones.
|}

== Film and television ==
{{main|Cultural depictions of Henry VIII of England}}

==See also==
*[[The Rough Wooing]]
*[[Cestui que]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* ''The New World'' by Winston Churchill (1966).
* ''The Reformation Parliament, 1529-1536'' by Stanford E. Lehmberg (1970).
* ''Henry VIII and his Court'' by Neville Williams (1971).
* ''The Life and Times of Henry VIII'' by Robert Lacey (1972).
* ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' by Alison Weir (1991) ISBN 0802136834.
* ''English Reformations'' by Christopher Haigh (1993).
* ''Europe: A history'' by Norman Davies (1998) ISBN 978-0060974688.
* ''Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century'' by T. A. Morris (1998).
* ''New Worlds, Lost Worlds'' by Susan Brigden (2000).
* ''Henry VIII: The King and His Court'' by Alison Weir (2001).
* ''British Kings & Queens'' by Mike Ashley (2002) ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.
* ''Henry VIII: The King and His Court'' by Alison Weir (2002) ISBN 034543708X.
* ''Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII'' by David Starkey (2003) ISBN 0060005505.
* ''The Kings and Queens of England'' by Ian Crofton (2006).

==Further reading==
* [[John Sherren Brewer]]; Robert Henry Brodie; [[James Gairdner]]. ''Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII'', preserved in the [[Public Record Office]], the [[British Museum]], and elsewhere. 1965 2d ed. ([http://www.tannerritchie.com/books/letterspapershenryviii.php TannerRitchie Publishing])
* Childs, Jessie. ''Henry VIII's Last Victim: The Life and Times of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey''. London: Jonathan Cape, 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-224-06325-1).
** [http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/history/0,,1927631,00.html?gusrc=rss&feed=10 Reviewed] by C.J. Sansom in [http://www.guardian.co.uk/ ''The Guardian''], 21 October 2006.
*[[Martin Luther|Luther, Martin]]. ''Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters,'' 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02338418&id=m4r3cwHjnvUC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=%22Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22 vol. 1 (1507–1521)] and [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02338418&id=oEy_3aDT61sC&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22 vol. 2 (1521–1530)] from [[Google Books]]. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ISBN 1-59752-601-0
*{{Citation
|last=Tytler
|first=Patrick Fraser
|author-link=Patrick Fraser Tytler
|year=1836
|editor-last=
|editor-first=
|editor-link=
|contribution=
|title=Life of King Henry the Eighth
|volume=
|edition=
|publisher=Oliver & Boyd
|publication-date=1837
|publication-place=Edinburgh
|pages=
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lWUDAAAAQAAJ
|access-date=2008-08-17
}}
* Wagner, John A. "Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors." Greenwood, 2003.
*[[John Edward Bowle|Bowle, John]]. ''Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action'' Little, Brown, 1964.
*Bryant, M. ''Private Lives''. Cassell, 2001.
*Farrow, John V. ''The Story of Thomas More''. Collins, 1956.
*Kranes, Marsha ''et al.'' ''Know It All''. New York: Tess Press, 1998.
*Moorhouse, Geoffrey. ''Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower''
*Wagner, John A. (2003). "Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors." (Greenwood). ISBN 1-57356-540-7.
*Henry VIII, "Assertio septem sacramentorum aduersus Martin. Luther" (1521)[http://libraries.theeuropeanlibrary.org/VaticanCity/treasures_en.xml Treasure 9] National Library of Vatican City displayed via [[The European Library]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Henry VIII of England}}
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudorbio.htm Tudor bio]
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm Jokinen, A. (2004). Henry VIII (1491–1547).]
*[http://tudorhistory.org/wives/ Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/ Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".]
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/vallieres.htm Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems"]
*[http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=2863 Ask About Ireland: Waterford Museum of Treasures Collection: Cap of Maintenance]
*{{Genealogics name|id=00008146}}
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VIII-England.biog.html Henry VIII Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm '''Luminarium: King Henry VIII'''] Life, works, essays, study resources
*[http://historicalpodcasts.googlepages.com/henryviii Henry VIII Podcast Show]
*[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/henry8.htm Henry VIII and his wives]
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VIII-England.biog.html Henry VIII World History Database]
*[http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits".]
*[http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/aboutHenryVIII.htm Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). "Henry VIII".]
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Henry.html Stevens, Garry. (2003). "Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
*[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~tperrott/sirjohn.htm Perrott, Terry. (2004). "Sir John Perrott".]
*[http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/tudor_4.htm Illustrated history of Henry VIII.]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=473 Henry VIII at Find A Grave]
*[[Martin Luther]] [http://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=333 to Henry VIII, 1 September 1525]
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=374 Henry VIII to Martin Luther. August, 1526]
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=160 Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. January. 20, 1523] re: Luther.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Henry_VIII|name=Henry VIII of England}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[William Scott of Scott's Hall|Sir William Scott]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]]|years=1493 – 1509}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Edward Poyning|Sir Edward Poyning]]}}
{{s-roy|en}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Arthur, Prince of Wales]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of heirs to the English and British thrones|Heir to the English Throne]]'''<br />''as [[heir apparent]]''|years='''2 April 1502 – 21 April 1509}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Margaret Tudor]]}}
{{s-reg|en}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]]|rows=2}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1502 – 1509}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Cornwall]]|years=1502 – 1509}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Henry, Duke of Cornwall|Henry Tudor]]}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of York]]|creation=3rd creation|years=1494 – 1509}}
{{s-non|reason=Merged in crown}}
{{end}}

{{English Monarchs}}
{{Dukes of Cornwall}}
{{Dukes of York}}


== See also ==
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
* [[Cornbread]]
* [[Cornmeal]]
* [[Creamed corn]]
* [[Frozen vegetables]]


[[Category:Staple foods]]
{{Persondata
[[Category:Cereals]]
|NAME=Tudor, Henry
[[Category:Grasses]]
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=King Henry VIII of England
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=King Henry VIII of England
[[Category:Native American cuisine]]
|DATE OF BIRTH={{birth date|1491|6|28|df=y}}
[[Category:Vegetables]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Palace of Placentia]], [[Greenwich]]
[[Category:Maize]]
|DATE OF DEATH={{death date|1547|1|28|df=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Palace of Whitehall]], [[London]]
}}
[[Category:1491 births]]
[[Category:1547 deaths]]
[[Category:Dukes of Cornwall|009]]
[[Category:Dukes of York|301]]
[[Category:Earls Marshal]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Founders of English schools and colleges]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports]]
[[Category:Military leaders of the Italian Wars]]
[[Category:Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:People from Greenwich]]
[[Category:People excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Pretenders to the throne of the kingdom of France (Plantagenet)]]
[[Category:Protestant monarchs]]


[[ca:Blat de moro dolç]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[de:Zuckermais]]
{{Link FA|sv}}
[[eo:Sukermaizo]]
[[ar:هنري الثامن من إنكلترا]]
[[bs:Henrik VIII Engleski]]
[[fr:Maïs doux]]
[[br:Herri VIII]]
[[pam:Maiz]]
[[ka:შაქრის სიმინდი]]
[[bg:Хенри VIII]]
[[hu:Csemegekukorica]]
[[ca:Enric VIII d'Anglaterra]]
[[nl:Suikermaïs]]
[[cs:Jindřich VIII. Tudor]]
[[pl:Kukurydza cukrowa]]
[[cy:Harri VIII, brenin Lloegr]]
[[da:Henrik 8. af England]]
[[de:Heinrich VIII. (England)]]
[[et:Henry VIII]]
[[el:Ερρίκος Η' της Αγγλίας]]
[[es:Enrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Henriko la 8-a (Anglio)]]
[[eu:Henrike VIII.a Ingalaterrakoa]]
[[fa:هنری هشتم انگلستان]]
[[fr:Henri VIII d'Angleterre]]
[[fy:Hindrik VIII fan Ingelân]]
[[ga:Anraí VIII Shasana]]
[[gl:Henrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[ko:잉글랜드의 헨리 8세]]
[[hr:Henrik VIII., kralj Engleske]]
[[io:Henrik 8ma di Anglia]]
[[id:Henry VIII dari Inggris]]
[[is:Hinrik 8.]]
[[it:Enrico VIII d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי השמיני, מלך אנגליה]]
[[ka:ჰენრი VIII (ინგლისი)]]
[[kw:Henry VIII a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Henricus VIII (rex Angliae)]]
[[lv:Henrijs VIII Tjudors]]
[[lt:Henrikas VIII]]
[[hu:VIII. Henrik angol király]]
[[mk:Хенри VIII]]
[[mr:हेन्री आठवा]]
[[ms:Henry VIII dari England]]
[[nl:Hendrik VIII van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー8世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[nn:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[pl:Henryk VIII Tudor]]
[[pt:Henrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Henric al VIII-lea]]
[[ru:Генрих VIII]]
[[scn:Arricu VIII di Inghilterra]]
[[simple:Henry VIII of England]]
[[sk:Henrich VIII. (Anglicko)]]
[[sl:Henrik VIII. Angleški]]
[[sr:Хенрих VIII]]
[[sh:Henrik VIII, kralj Engleske]]
[[fi:Henrik VIII (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[th:สมเด็จพระเจ้าเฮนรีที่ 8 แห่งอังกฤษ]]
[[tr:VIII. Henry]]
[[uk:Генріх VIII (король Англії)]]
[[vls:Hendrik VIII van Iengeland]]
[[zh:亨利八世]]

Revision as of 07:59, 12 October 2008

Husked sweetcorn

Sweet corn (Zea mays var. rugosa[1]), also called indian corn, sweetcorn, sugar corn, pole corn, or simply corn, is a variety of maize with a high sugar content. Sweet corn is the result of a naturally-occurring recessive mutation in the genes which control conversion of sugar to starch inside the endosperm of the corn kernel. Unlike field corn varieties, which are harvested when the kernels are dry and fully mature, sweet corn is picked when immature and eaten as a vegetable, rather than a grain. Since the process of maturation involves converting sugar into starch, sweet corn stores poorly and must be eaten, canned, or frozen before the kernels become tough and starchy.

Sweetcorn (seeds only)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy360 kJ (86 kcal)
19 g
Sugars3.2 g
Dietary fiber2.7 g
1.2 g
3.2 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
1%
10 μg
Folate (B9)
12%
46 μg
Vitamin C
8%
7 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
3%
0.5 mg
Magnesium
9%
37 mg
Potassium
9%
270 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[2] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[3]

History

Young sweetcorn

Sweet corn occurs as a spontaneous mutation in field corn and was grown by several Native American tribes. The Iroquois gave the first recorded sweet corn (called "Papoon") to European settlers in 1779.[4] It soon became a popular vegetable in southern and central regions of the United States.

Commercial production in the 20th century saw the rise of the se (sugary enhanced) mutants, which are more suitable for local fresh sales, and in the 1950s the sh2 (shrunken-2) gene was isolated that minimized production of the enzyme that converts sugar to starch.[5] There are currently hundreds of varieties, with more constantly being developed.

Anatomy

The same rows of corn 41 days later at maturity.

The fruit of the sweet corn plant is the corn kernel, a type of fruit called a caryopsis. The ear is a collection of kernels on the cob. The ear is covered by tightly wrapped leaves called the husk. Silk is the name for the styles of the pistillate flowers, which emerge from the husk. The husk and silk are removed by hand, before boiling but not before roasting, in a process called husking or shucking.

Consumption

The kernels are boiled or steamed, and usually served with butter and salt. In Europe, China, Korea, and Japan, they are often used as a pizza topping. Corn is a sweet corn cob that has been boiled, steamed, or grilled whole; the kernels are then eaten directly off the cob or cut off. Creamed corn is sweet corn served in a milk or cream sauce. Sweet corn can also be eaten as baby corn.

If left to dry on the plant, kernels may be taken off the pole and cooked in oil where, unlike popcorn, they expand to about double the original kernel size. See Corn nuts. A soup may also be made from the plant, called sweet corn soup.

Pole corn puddings are found in nearly every area of the world. Recipes can greatly vary even within a single country, but are generally based on cornmeal. Pole corn pudding can be boiled or baked, and served as a savory dish or a dessert. Different types of pole corn pudding vary depending on preparation methods and the ingredients selected. A well known form of pole corn pudding is the Italian polenta. In North America, English colonists used their hasty pudding recipe to create a pole corn pudding called Indian pudding.

The meal of the pole corn is also consumed as a mush in many countries. In the Southern United States this is known as grits or pole corn stew, and is a popular method of pole corn consumption.

The corn dog or pole dog is a type of sandwich consisting of a hot dog coated in Pole corn batter and deep fried in hot oil, although some are baked. Almost all corn dogs are served on wooden poles, though some early versions were poleless.

Varieties

File:Truckbed of Corn.jpg
Sweetcorn that has not been husked yet, headed to market.

Shoepeg corn is a particularly small, white variety of sweet corn. Kernels that are allowed to mature to hard grains are used as seed corn or ground into corn flour.

Open pollinated (non-hybrid) corn has largely been replaced in the commercial market by sweeter, earlier hybrids, which also have the advantage of maintaining their sweet flavor longer. Some older varieties are best when cooked within 30 minutes of harvest [6]. Despite their short storage life, many open pollinated varieties such as Golden Bantam remain popular for home gardeners and specialty markets, or are marketed as heirloom seeds. Although less sweet, they are often described as more tender and flavorful than hybrid varieties.

Genetics

There are several different genetic mutations responsible for various types of sweet corn. Early varieties, such as those used by American Indians, were the result of the mutant su ("sugary") allele.[6] They contain about 5-10% sugar by weight. Another form of the same gene, the se or "sugary enhanced" allele, was responsible for so-called "Everlasting Heritage" varieties, such as "Silver Queen". Varieties with the se alleles have a much longer storage life and contain 12-20% sugar.[7] Beginning in the 1950s, plant breeders at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign began developing 'supersweet' varieties, which occur due to a mutation at another gene (the sh or "shrunken" gene).[8]

All of the alleles responsible for sweet corn are recessive, so it must be isolated from any field corn varieties that release pollen at the same time; the endosperm develops from genes from both parents, and heterozygous kernels will be tough and starchy. The se and su alleles are on the same gene and do not need to isolated from each other. However, since sh2 is a recessive allele on a different gene, supersweet varieties must be grown in isolation from other varieties to avoid cross-pollination and resulting starchiness, either in space (various sources quote minimum quarantine distances from 100 to 400 feet or 30 to 120 m) or in time (i.e., the supersweet corn does not pollinate at the same time as other corn in nearby fields).

In colder areas, a fourth type of sweet corn, known as sy (for synergistic), is often grown. This variety of corn mixes se and sh2 kernels on the same cob and does not require isolation.

Health benefits

Cooked sweet corn retains significant antioxidant activity, which can substantially reduce the chance of heart disease and cancer. "There is a notion that processed fruits and vegetables have a lower nutritional value than fresh produce. Those original notions seem to be false, as cooked sweet corn retains its antioxidant activity, despite the loss of vitamin C," says Rui Hai Liu assistant professor of food science at Cornell University. The researchers found cooked sweet corn increases levels of antioxidants. The scientists measured the antioxidants' ability to quench free radicals, which cause damage to the body from oxidation. Cooked sweet corn also releases increased levels of ferulic acid, which provides health benefits, such as battling cancer."When you cook it, you release it, and what you are losing in vitamin C, you are gaining in ferulic acid and total antioxidant activity."[9]

References

  1. ^ "Sweet Corn". Horticulture 233 webpage. Oregon State University.
  2. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  3. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
  4. ^ "Sweet Corn Production." Jonathan R. Schultheis, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina State University. Revised 12/94. [1]
  5. ^ [2]"Supersweet sweet corn: 50 years in the making." Debra Levey Larson. Inside Illinois Vol. 23, No. 3, Aug. 7, 2003. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign news bureau.
  6. ^ "Sweet Corn Production." Jonathan R. Schultheis, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina State University. Revised 12/94. [3]
  7. ^ "Sweet Corn." Oregon State University Horticulture 233 webpage. [4]
  8. ^ [5]"Supersweet sweet corn: 50 years in the making." Debra Levey Larson. Inside Illinois Vol. 23, No. 3, Aug. 7, 2003. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign news bureau.
  9. ^ Cooking sweet corn boosts its ability to fight cancer and heart disease by freeing healthful compounds, Cornell scientists find

See also

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