Horses in warfare

sandbox of war horse

A reenactor showing a knight on a modern draft horse in late medieval plate armor jousting at a Renaissance Fair

Horses have been used to support human warfare since the time of domestication to the present day.

Types of horses used in war

A fundamental principle of horse conformation is "form to function." Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the task at hand. There was also a trade-off between speed and protection. Adding weight reduces maximum speed, as is seen today when handicapping modern race horses. Conversely, a warrior or soldier also required some degree of protection from enemy weapons, and an overemphasis on light equipment could easily prove fatal in some situations. In close combat, protection, even though it added weight, was considered to matter more than speed.

Horses used in war also varied in size, depending on the task at hand, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and the distances traveled. The average horse can carry up to approximately 25% of its body weight. Weight carried affected both speed and endurance. In some cultures, warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, for sprints in actual combat.

Horses used for pulling vehicles varied in size, but also traded off speed for weight and power. A team of two light horses could pull a small war chariot that usually carried a driver and a warrior, but supply wagons and other support vehicles needed either heavier horses or a larger number of horses to perform the transportation duties required support military operations. While all horses can pull more than they can carry, the weight horses can pull varies widely, depending on whether a vehicle rolls on wheels or is simply drug, whether it is pulled on a good road or in rough terrain, and so on. Traction force of horses pulling a load, as measured by a dynamometer, can be between 50-300kg, depending on speed and distance. In practical terms, this represents a range of between 1.5 tons and 9 tons for a heavy draft horse that weighs about 2000 lbs For example, a team of two modern draft horses can pull 4,000 lbs in weight-pull competitions, dragging a unwheeled weighted sled on level dirt for a short distance On the other hand, horses pulling a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull roughly three to eight times their weight. The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also influenced how much it could pull: Horses could pull greater weight after the invention of the horse collar circa A.D. 800 than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of an ox yoke or a breast collar in earlier times.

Light-weight horses

Light, oriental-type horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian, Barb, and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance and agility. Such horses ranged from about 13 hands (~1.51 m) to about 15 hands (~1.74 m), weighing approximately 400 to 500 kg (800 to 1000 pounds). To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, javelins or, later, rifles. This was the original horse used for raiding, light cavalry, scouting or reconnaissance, and communications.

Light horses were used by many cultures, including the Scythians, the Parthians, the Ancient Egyptians, the Mongols, the Arabs and the American Indian. Throughout the Ancient Near East, because the first domesticated horses were small, light animals, (see domestication of the horse) teams of two or more horses were often used to pull chariots. In the European Middle Ages, the light type of horse became known as a Palfrey. Light horses sometimes carried Dragoons and Mounted infantry, depending on the amount of weight required to be carried by each soldier.

Medium-weight horses

Medium-weight horses developed with the needs of most civilizations to pull heavier loads and to carry heavier riders, beginning as early as the Iron Age. Breeds such as the ancestors of the modern Andalusian, Lipizzan, and the various Warmblood breeds got their start by the need for horses to haul chariots capable of holding more than one warrior, pull supply wagons, and maneuver various types of weapons, such as Horse artillery into place. As light cavalry evolved into heavy cavalry, a larger horse was also needed to carry the increased weight of a more heavily-armed and armored rider. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about 14.2 hands (~1.65 m) to as much as 17 hands (~1.97 m) weighing approximately 500 to 750 kg (1,000 to 1,500 pounds). They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have the raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. The heavier horses in this class were sometimes called Destriers. Horses of a warmblood type often carried European Dragoons and Mounted infantry.

Heavy-weight horses

Heavy, draft-type horses were used in later periods, particularly in Europe, to pull heavy loads and to carry the heaviest-armored riders of all, the knight of the European Middle Ages. Weighing from 750 to nearly 1,000 kg (1,500 to nearly 2,000 pounds), the ancestors of breeds similar to today's modern Belgian and Shire had the muscle power to pull heavy supply wagons, albeit slowly, and to be calm under fire. Breeds at the smaller end of the heavyweight category, such as the Friesian, and Percheron carried knights, and had to be agile for their size in order to manuver in battle. Heavier Shire-type horses were sometimes ridden in battle, but usually for jousting or short charges where agility and endurance were less necessary. These horses were sometimes referred to as Chargers, the "Great Horse" or war horse (in a more limited meaning). There is a dispute if the Destrier class of horse included the heaviest types.

Other Equids

Horses were not the only animals used to support human warfare. Mules, a hybrid of a horse and a donkey were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, though occasionally as riding animals. Mules, as a general rule, are considered both calmer and hardier than horses and so were useful for heavy, difficult tasks.

Historical training and deployment of war horses

See also horse training

The details on various methods of training horses, and war horses in particular, vary as much as the cultures and historical periods that produced them. Horse training methods were commonly passed on through an oral tradition and the number of written treatises on the subject was quite limited until the modern era. The oldest manual on training horse for chariot warfare is the work of the Hittite horsemaster, Kikkuli, who wrote on the subject circa 1350 B.C. An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for the Ancient Greek light cavalry is On Horsemanship by the Greek author Xenophon, an Athenian who was born circa 430 B.C. One of the earliest texts from Asia was that of Kautilya, written about 323 B.C.

Whether horses were trained for pulling chariots, to be ridden as light cavalry, heavy cavalry, or as the Destrier for the heavily-armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. Horses had to learn to face weaponry of the enemy and not panic, even if struck, and learn to accept any sudden or unusual movements of their riders when utilizing a weapon or avoiding one. Developing balance and agility was crucial. The origins of the discipline of Dressage came from the need to train horses to move with as much athleticism while carrying a rider as they did when free.

A war horse used as a riding animal in most cultures was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight; to develop tolerance for the noises of battle; to become accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, as well as learn to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armor. Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.

In addition, some war horses were trained for specialized uses. A horse used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike and even bite, thus becoming weapons in the extended arsenal of the warriors they carried. Other horses, used for raids or reconnaissance, were taught to remain quiet at all times, to avoid whinnying to other horses or otherwise betraying their presence.

The Haute ecole or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught to the famous Lipizzan horses at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna have their roots in maneuvers needed on the battlefield. However, it must be pointed out that modern airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.

Technological innovations in equestrian equipment

While the invention of the wheel is widely touted as a major innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare, riders fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary bridle. Two major innovations that revolutionized the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup. (more material needed here, please add)

Horses in the military today

Horse Guards in London

U.S. special forces troops on horseback in Afghanistan, 2001

Light cavalry remained a force on the battlefield until the 20th century. With the rise of the internal combustion engine, horses were displaced by modern tank warfare, which, ironically, is sometimes still referred to as "cavalry."

Horses were still seen in cavalry units during World War II, most famously when the underequipped Polish army used its cavalry to defend Poland against the armies of Nazi Germany. Contrary to Nazi propaganda of the era, the majority of Polish cavalry charges were in fact successful against the better-armed German forces. The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end the war, not only to transport ammunitions and equipment, but also for reconnaissance and counter-insurgency efforts.

Ceremonial horse guards, often in historical regalia, are seen in some major cities, such as London, performing traditional sentry and guard duties.

Although horses have little combat use today by modern armies, the military of many nations still maintain small numbers of mounted units for certain types of patrol and reconnaissance duties in extremely rugged terrain, including the current conflict in Afghanistan. Hungary, some British Commonwealth countries, Balkan countries, and nations that once comprised Soviet Central Asia maintain cavalry units as part of light infantry and reconnaisance formations for use in mountainous terrain or areas where fuel supply may be difficult.

Many countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, maintain traditionally-trained and historically uniformed cavalry units for exhibition, demonstration or educational purposes. One example is the Horse Cavalry Detatchment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division. This unit, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s. The horse detachment is headquartered at Fort Hood, Texas and is charged with public relations, chage of command ceremonies and public appearances. A similar detachment is the Strathcona Mounted Troop, the only regular force cavalry unit in the Canadian Army.

Historical reenactment

Main article: Historical reenactment

Horses are trained to be able to reenact historical battle scenes today. Examples include the Battle of Hastings reenactment and the American Civil War reenactment. Due to changes between ancient and modern horses, equipment and materials, it is sometimes difficult to create reenactments that are fully authentic with original equipment and horse breeds of the represented time.

Law enforcement

The Police Horse is a fixture in many large cities, used for patrol and crowd control.

In rural areas, many Sheriff's offices have specially deputized, usually volunteer, search and rescue units who are often sent out to locate missing people. Horses can be an essential part of an overall team effort as they can move faster on the ground than a human on foot, can transport heavy equipment, and provide a more rested rescue worker when a subject is found.

Modern training and competition

The modern Olympic disciplines of eventing, show jumping, and dressage have roots in the skills required of the light cavalry horse of the 18th and 19th centuries. Dressage is based of the works of Xenophon and his cavalry training methods, most notably On Horsemanship, but had its greatest revival during the Renaissance. Training methods were developed to create a responsive, supple horse that could quickly respond to his rider's commands, as was critical when riding on the dangerous ground of the battlefield. The Spanish Riding School was built to train horses and riders for combat, and today is one of the great schools for developing riders based on the ideals of classical dressage.

Eventing had a more recent development, first occurring in the late 1800s as more of a competitive endurance ride than the modern three-phase competition seen today. The discipline eventually added a dressage phase, to test the ability of the cavalry mount on the parade ground, the endurance phase, to test the mount's fitness and ability to carry messages across the countryside, traveling quickly over rough terrain, and the stadium jumping phase, as a test to ensure that the mount was still fit enough to continue after the rigors of the endurance competition. Originally, only officers on active duty riding military chargers were allowed to compete, but the competition is now open to all horses and riders.

Show jumping is the farthest removed from direct military applications, but originally showcased the ability to cross formidable obstacles, crucial skills for carrying messages and coordinating troop movements.

The Olympic equestrian national teams of the modern Olympics were originally drawn exclusively from the male officer ranks of the military until 1952. After that time, both civilian and military competitors competed together until most cavalry units were disbanded in the postwar era, and today most team members are drawn almost entirely from civilian ranks. Today, the equestrian events are the only Olympic competition where men and women compete together.

The modern sport of Tent pegging is the most broadly recognized and practiced sport specifically designed to train the war horse and its rider in the skills of mounted combat.

Bibliography

Bennett, Deb. Conquerers" Roots of New World Horsemanship. citation needed

See also

• Kikkuli
• Xenophon

External Links

External link to a manual about horses in the battle of Hastings reenactment