History of phycology

Early days

The 18th Century was the century of "Enlightment" for Botany. Before Carl von Linné the study of botany goes back into pre history as plants were the food of people from the beginning of time. The first references to algae are to be found in early Chinese literature, there are are also references in Roman and Greek literature. The greek word for algae was "Phycos" whilst in Roman times they were called Fucus. There are early references to the use of algae for manure. The first coralline algae to be recognized as living organisms were probably Corallina, by Pliny in the first century AD (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994).

No real progress was made in the scientific study of algae until the invention of the microscope. Before Linné algae had been given a name, but it took Linné to arrange the names and group the plants of this Earth in some sort of order. Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) 1707 - 1778 was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist he laid the foundations of modern biological systematics and nomenclature. He gave (or used an already existing) name as the genus and a second name as the species name both in latin or latinised. He developed a coherent system for naming organisims. He devided the plant kingdom into 25 classes, one of which, the Cryptogamia, included all plants with concealed reproductive organs. He devided the Cryptogamia into four orders: Filices, Musci, Algae - which included lichens and liverworts and Fungi. It was in this period that Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723) discovered bacteria and saw the cell structure of plants.

18th Century

In the eighteenth century all coralline algae were considered animals. R. Philippi in 1837 published his paper in which he finally recognized that coralline algae were not animals and he proposed the generic names Lithophyllum and Lithothamnion (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994). Carl Adolph Agardh was born in Sweden on 23 January 1785 and died on 28th January 1859, he was Professor of Botany at the University of Lund and later Bishop of Karlstad Diocese and was one of the most prominent algologists of all time. Many species still show his name as the authority of the scientific name. He travelled widely in Europe visiting Germany, Poland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Italy and was the first to emphasise the importance of the reproductive characters of algae and use them to distinguish the different genera and families. His son, Jacob Georg Agardh (1813 - 1901), who became Professor of Botany at Lund in 1939, made a study of the life-histories of algae, he described many new genera and species. It was to him that many workers sent specimens for determination and as donations. Because of this the herbarium at Lund is the most important algal herbaria in the world.

Archibald Menzies (1754 - 1842) was the appointed botanist on the expedition of 1791 - 1795 to the Pacific coast of North America. The algae collected by Menzies were passed to Dawson Turner (1775 - 1858) who described and illustrated them in a four-volumed work published in 1808 - 1819. However Turner only referred to taxa referable to Fucus, either Menzies collected very few or he gave only a few to Turner. Three of these species described by Turner later became the types of new genera.

19th Century - W.H. Harvey

Willian Henry Harvey (1811 - 1866) was Keeper of the Herbarium and Professor in Botany at Trinity College, Dublin. He was one of the most distinguished algologists of his time. Apart from Ireland he visited South Africa, the Atlantic seaboard of America as far south as the Florida Keys and east coast of North America and Australia (1854- ). Between 1853 to 1856 he visited Ceylon, Australia and New Zealand and various parts of the South Pacific. His collection in Australia resulted in one of the most extensive collections of marine plants and it inspired others. He published: Nereis Australis Or Algae of the Southern Ocean. in 1847 - 1849; in 1846 - 51 his Phycologia Britannica appeared. Nereis Boreali-Americana was published in three parts (1852 - 1858) and a five-volume Phycologia Australica in (1858 - 1863). His primary herbarium is in Trinity College, Dublin (TCD) however large collections of Harvey material is to be found in the Ulster Museum (BEL); University of St Andrews (STA) and National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL), Melbourne, Australia). Many of the collectors of this period sent, and exchanged, specimens freely one to another, as a result Harvey's books show a remarkable knowledge of the distribution of algae elsewhere in the world. His Phycologia Britannica lists species recorded and collected from various parts of the British Isles. For example he notes William Thompson (1805 - 1852), W. McCalla (c.1814 - 1849), John Templeton (1766 - 1825) and D. Landsborough (1779 - 1854) as well as himself as having collected certain species at certain sites in Ireland. The collections of these botanists, and many others, are represented separately by collecions in the Ulster Museum (BEL). Sir William Jackson Hooker (1785 - 1865) was a life-long friend of Harvey. He collected plants in Iceland in 1820 and was Professor of Botany at Glasgow University, he became Director in Kew 1841 - 1865. Hooker recognised the talent in Harvey, lent him books encouraged and invited him to write the section on algae in his British Flora. as well as the section on algae for The Botany of Captain Beechey's Voyage. Alfred Gatty (1809 - 1873), author of British Seaweeds corresponded with William Henry Harvey (The Phycologist. 65: 14 - 17). E.M.Holmes (1843 - 1930), an expert on sea-weeds, mosses, liverworts and lichens specimens were sent to him from all over the British Isles, as well as from Norway, Sweden, Florida, Tasmania, France, Cape of Good Hope, Cylon and Australia. He also exchanged specimens (Furley, D.D. 1989. Notes on the correspondence of E.M.Holmes (1843 - 1930)The Linnean Newsletter and Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 5(3): 23 - 25). Much work was done by many workers of this time, specimens were sent and exchanged.

18th Century - latterly

In the same period F.T.Kützing in Germany described more new genera than anyone either before or after. His publications span the period 1841 to 1871 and added materially to knowledge of algae of cold waters of the Arctic seas. In 1889 Frans Reinhold Kjellman, Professor of Botany at Uppsala University, published a monograph on the algae of the Bearing Sea. 1n 1877 he published, between 1883 and 1910, published several works including, in 1883, The Algae of the Arctic Sea. He devided the "Arctic Sea" into different regions which surround the North Pole. Further research of the marine algae in the world included: Charles Lewis Anderson (1827 - 1910) who collaborated with William Gilson Farlow and with Professor Daniel Cady Eaton to produce on the first exsiccatae of North American Algae. G.Clifton (1823- 1913) an Australian phycologist is mentioned in Harvey's Memoirs, as the Superintendent of the Water Police in Perth, West Australia (May, V. 1977. Taxon 26:495), sent algal specimens to Harvey. In these years there were many workers in this field: William Gilson Farlows who was appointed Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at University of Harvard (U.S.A.) in 1879, published in 1881 the Marine algae of New England and Adjacent Coasts.; in 1876 John Erhard Areschoug, a Sweedish Professor of Botany at Upsalla University, reported on some brown algae collected in California. George W.Traill (1836 - 1897) was a clerk in the Standard Life Company in Edinburgh where he worked long hours, yet he was one of the greatest authorities on Scottish algae. Despite bad health he was an indefatigable collector. In 1892 he gave his collection to the Herbarium of the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens (Furley, D.D.1989. The Linnean 5: 28 - 29).

Mikael Heggelund Foslie (M.Foslie) (1855 - 1905) published 69 papers between 1887 - 1909. During this time he increased the number of species and forms (of corallines) from 175 to 650. (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994). He was a curator in the Royal Norwegian Scientific Society Museum, Trondheim and there is a small collection of his in the Ulster Museum, Collection No. 42, entitled;Algae Norvegicae (BEL: F10319 - F10334). Edward Arthur Lionel Batters (1860 - 1907) was a barrister and distinguished algalogist, amongst his valuable works is a supplement, published in 1902, to the Journal of Botany entitled New or critical British marine algae vol.40: 1 - 101. This paper detailed the records of algae found in the British Isles (ref. The Linnean Newsletter. 5: 25).

20th Century

In 1935 and 1945 Felix Eugen Fritsch (1879 - 1954) published in two volumes his treatise: The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. These two volumes detail virtually all that was then known about the morphology and reproduction of the algae. However knowledge of algae has so greatly increased since then it would be impossible to bring them up-to-date, nevertheless these two volumes are still often referred to. Other valuable works published in the 1950s include Cryptogamic Botany. written by Gilbert Morgan Smith (1885 - 1959), the algal volume (no.1) was published in 1955. In the following year (1956), Die Gattungen der Rhodophyceen. by Herald Johann Kylin (1879 - 1949) was published posthumously. Other phycologists who contributed massively to the knowledge of algae included: Mary Park (1908 - 1989)

The development of public awareness

The number of books published in the mid to late 1800s shows how interest in natural world around us developed. Books on algae were written by: Isabella Gifford The Marine Botanist... in 1853, some of her specimens are in the Ulster Museum) (BEL); D. Landsborough 1857: A Popular History of British Seaweeds,...; 1867 S.O.Gray published British Sea-weeds:... and Grattann, W.H. (undated but believed to be about 1874) published British Marine Algae:.... All these were for the common person.

The process accellerated into the 19th cnetury. Lilly Newton (née Batten) (1893 - 1981) Professor in Botany at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth and Professor Emeritus in 1959 wrote: A Handbook of the British Seaweeds. the first, and for quite a time, the only book for identification of seaweeds in the British Isles using a botanical key. In 1962 Eifion Jones published: A key to the genera of the British seaweeds. This provided a valuable booklet bridging the period before the valuable series Seaweeds of the British Isles was produced by the British Museum (Natural History) or The Natural History Museum. This work went in parallel with check-lists. Mary Park produced a preliminary checklist of British marine algae in 1953, corrections and additions of this were published in 1956, 1957 and 1959. In 1964 M.Park and P.S.Dixon published a revised check-list, a second revision of this was produced in 1968 and a third revision in 1976. Distribution was added to the checklist in 1986 with G.R.South and I.Tittley's A Checklist and Distributional Index of the Benthic Marine Algae of the North Atlantic Ocean. In 2003 A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland was published by Gavin Hardy and Michael Guiry. This shows how knowledge of algae, at least in the British Isles, advanced. First efforts were made by interested biologists to identify the algae, this required books using botanical keys to identify the plants, followed by checklists and as more information was brought to light by interested workers, some volunteers, so the checklists were improved and eventually a mapping scheme brought all this information together. The same pattern of knowledge developed with birds, mammals and flowering plants. Knowledge of other forms of life are not so well advanced though in action, for example the lichens.

Orbituaries:-

Jones, G. Obituary. Lilly Newton (née Batten) (1893 - 1981). Br. phycol J. 17: 1 - 4.

Green, J.C. 1990. Obituary: Mary Park FRS (1908 - 1989) Br. phycol. J. 25: 211 - 216.)

Notes

Edward Batters (1860 - 1907. B.A.; FLS 1883 [Ref my file on Biologists under Holmes"]

Elmer Yale Dawson (1918 - 1966)

Kathleen M. Drew Baker (...1925 - 1927...) University of Manchester. President of the British Phycological Society 1953.

William Randolph Taylor (1895 - 1990)(Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 27: 1 - 2.

Elsie Conway (nee Phillips)(1902 - 1992) Visited University of British Columbia in 1969 - 1970 and researched there in 1972 - 1974. She was president of the British Phycological Society 1965 - 1967. Retired in 1969. (An apppreciation: The Phycologist 35: 3 - 5.

Máirin de Valéra (1912 - 1984). Professor Emerita of Botany at University College, Galway. (Obituary: Br. Phycol. J. 20: 81 - 84.)

Elsie M.Burrows (Dr.) (1913 - 1986) University of Liverpool. (Ref: Obituary: Br.phycol.J. 22: 317 - 319).

Margaret Constance Helen Blackler (1902 - 1981) Assistant Keeper of Botany, Liverpool Museum (1933 - 1945). In 1947 joined staff University St Andrews. (Obituary: Br.phycol. J. 17: 343 - 346).

Joanna M.Kain (nee Jones) (...1987 - 1988...) President of British Phycological Society 1987 - 1988.

Peter Stanley Dixon (1929 - 1993) Professor Emeritus of Biology at University of California. (In Memoriam: Phycologia) 34: 538 - 543.)

David Edward Guthrie Irvine (1924 - 1995) (Ref. Obituary 1996. The Phycologist 44: 3 - 7.)

William Dwyn Isaac (1905 - 1995)

Harald Kylin (...1906 - 1949...) Author: Die Gattengen der Rhodophyceen. 1956 CWK Gleerups Förlag,Lund. Specimens in Ulster Museum,....

Willian Eifion Jones (1925 - 2004).

George Russell (...1983 - 1984...) President of British Phycological Society 1983 - 1984.

George Frederik Papenfuss (1903 - 1981) (Obituary: Br phycol. J. 17 :347 - 349.)

Irene Manton FRS (1904 - 1988) (Obituary: Br.phycol. J. 24: 103 - 109).

References

Abott, I.A. and Hollenberg, G.J. 1976. Marine Algae of California. Stanford University Press, California.

Batters, E.A.L. 1902. New or critical British marine algae. J.Bot. 40: 1 - 101.

Chapman, V.J. 1968. The Algae. Macmillan. London, Melbourne, Torento.

Farlow, W.G. 1881 The Marine algae of New England. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1879, Appendizx A-1: 1 - 210. 1882. Separate copies of the independently circulated appendix carry the title Marine Algae of New England and Adjacent Coast. and the date 1881 on the title page, but the completed volume when issued was dated 1882. The work was reissued with the shorter name on the title page in 1891, with the same pagination.

Furley, D.D. 1989. Notes on the correspondence of E.M.Holmes (1843 - 1930)The Linnean Newsletter and Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 5(3): 23 - 25.

Fussey, G.D., Sainsbury, D.W. and Smith, D.A.S. 2006. The William Hincks herbarium at Eton College: Botany in early nineteenth century Yorkshire. Naturalist 131:23 - 35.

Gray, S.O. (1867) British Sea-weeds:... London.

Harvey, W.H. 1833. Algae, in W.J.Hooker and G.A.W.Arnott, The Botany of Captain Beechey's Voyage... London. Pp. 163 - 165.

Hooker, W.J. 1833. British flora. 5. London.

Huisman, J.M. 2000. Marine Plants of Australia. University of Western Australia Press; Australia Biological Resources Study.

Irvine, L.M. and Chamberlain, Y,M. 1994. Seaweeds of the British Isles Volume 1, Part 2B. pp. 11 - 12. The Natural History Museum, London.

Kjellman, F.R. 1883. The algae of the Arctic Sea. Kjl. Svensk. Vetensk. Ak. Handl., 20(5): 1 - 350.

May, V. 1977. Harvey's Australian Algae at the National Herbarium of New South Wales (NSW), Sydney, Australia. Taxon 26:496.

Papenfuss, G.F. pp.21 - 46 "Landmarks in Pacific North American Marine Phycology" in Abott, I.A. and Hollenberg, G.J. 1976. Marine Algae of California. Stanford University Press, California.