Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts refers to the enormous variety of martial arts native to Japan.
General History
The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the samurai and the caste system that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their liege. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.
Ordinarily, the development of combative techniques is intertwined with the tools used to execute those techniques. In a rapidly changing world, those tools are constantly being improved upon, requiring the techniques to use them to be continuously reinvented. The history of Japan is somewhat unique in its relative isolation. Compared with the rest of the world, the Japanese tools of war evolved slowly. Many people believe that this afforded the warrior class the opportunity to study their weapons with greater depth than other cultures. Nevertheless, the teaching and training of these martial arts did evolve, first with conditions on the battlefield (archery giving way to the sword; glaive giving way to spear), then through a long period of peace, and finally into modern times. Over time two trends defined the arts - first there was increasing specialization, and second, many of the arts took on trappings of budō which implies a higher purpose than just the mastering of arms.
The martial arts developed or originating in Japan are extraordinarily diverse, with vast differences in training tools, methods, and philosophy across innumerable schools and styles. That said, Japanese martial arts may generally be divided into koryū and gendai budō based on whether the existed prior to or after the Meiji Restoration, respectively. Since gendai budō and koryū often share the same historical origin, one will find various types of martial arts (such as jujutsu, kenjutsu, or naginatajutsu) on both sides of the divide.
- A note on the organization of this article; it would be impossible to discuss Japanese martial arts in terms of the thousands of individual schools or styles, such as Ittō-ryū, Daitō-ryū or Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū. Instead, major sections are divided based on when the art originated (regardless of whether it is still practiced), and subsections are dedicated to the root type of martial art, such as jujutsu (the art of empty-handed combat through use of indirect application of force) or kendo (Japanese sport fencing), wherein notable styles or major differences between styles may be discussed.
Koryū
- Main article: Koryū.
- See also: List of koryū schools of martial arts.
Koryū (古流:こりゅう), meaning traditional school, or old school, refers specifically to schools of martial arts, originating in Japan, prior to the the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1866. The term also is used generally to indicate that a particular style or art is "traditional", rather than "modern". However, what it means for an art to be either "traditional" or "modern" is subject to some debate. As a general rule of thumb, the primary purpose of a koryū martial art was for use in war. These martial arts were developed for use in war, and were tested (either intentionally or incidentally) by the scientific method over centuries of time. The most extreme example of a koryū school is one that preserves its traditional, and often ancient, martial practices even in the absence of continuing wars in which to test them. Other koryū schools may have made modifications to their practices that reflect the passage of time (which may or may not have resulted in the loss of "koryū" status in the eyes of its peers). This is as opposed to "modern" martial arts, whose primary focus is generally upon the self-improvement (mental, physical, or spiritual) of the individual practitioner, with varying degrees of emphasis on the practical application of the martial art for either sport or self defense purposes.[citation needed]
The following subsections represent not individual schools of martial arts, but rather generic "types" of martial arts. These are generally distinguishable on the basis of their training methodology and equipment, though wide variation still exists within each.
Sumo
- Main article: Sumo.
Sumo (相撲:すもう, sumō), considered by many to be Japan's national sport, has its origins in the distant past. The earliest written records of Japan, which are dated from the eighth century A.D., record the first sumo match in 23 B.C., occurring specifically at the request of the emperor, and continuing until one man was too mortally wounded to continue. Beginning in 728 A.D., Emperor Shomu (724 – 749) began holding official sumo matches at the annual harvest festivals. This tradition of having matches in the presence of the emperor continued, but gradually spread, with matches also held at Shinto festivals, and sumo training being incorporated into military training. By the seventeenth century, sumo was an organized professional sport, open to the public, enjoyed by both the upper class and commoners.
From the beginning of its practice, sumo been intertwined with various Shinto rituals, many of which persist to the present day. For example, the referee still dresses in the tradtional garb of a Shinto priest to officiate a match. Also, each match begins with each participant being announced, followed by each man ritually rinsing his mouth out with water. Then, in unison, they clap their hands to attract the attention of the kami (protective spirits or deities), and stomp their feet to drive away evil spirits. Finally they each throw handfuls of salt around the ring to purify it.
Although some of the traditional rituals surrounding a sumo match may be complex, the rules are relatively simple. Each wrestler begins facing the other, and the first man to touch the ground with a part of the body other than the bottom of the feet, or touch the ground outside the ring with any part of the body, loses. In the event of a simultaneous fall, whoever touches the ground second is the winner.
Today, there are six grand tournaments held annually, with three in Tokyo, and one in Osaka, Nagoya, and Kyushu. Each tournament is fifteen days long, and each participant fights once each day. At the conclusion of the tournament, the fighter with the best overall record of wins and losses is awarded the championship. The relative ranking of each professional sumo fighter is published in an official list, called the banzuke, and is revised after each tournament. This list is followed religiously by avid sumo fans.
Jūjūtsu
- Main article, Jujutsu.
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Jujutsu (柔術:じゅうじゅうつ, jūjūtsu), literally translates to "art of pliance". More accurately, however, it means the art of using indirect force, such as joint locks or throwing techniques, to defeat an opponent, as opposed to direct force, such as a punch or a kick. This is not to imply that jujutsu does not teach or employ strikes, but rather that the art's aim is the ability to use an attacker's force against him, and counter-attack where he is weakest or least defended.
Methods of combat included striking (kicking, punching), throwing (body throws, joint-lock throws, unbalance throws), restraining (pinning, strangulating, grappling, wrestling) and weaponry. Defensive tactics included blocking, evading, off balancing, blending and escaping. Minor weapons such as the tantō (dagger), ryufundo kusari (weighted chain), jutte (helmet smasher), and kakushi buki (secret or disguised weapons) were almost always included in koryū jujutsu.
Most of these were battlefield-based systems to be practiced as companion arts to the more common and vital weapon systems. At the time these fighting arts actually used many different names, including kogusoku, yawara, kumiuchi, and hakuda. In reality, these grappling systems were not really unarmed systems of combat, but are more accurately described as means whereby an unarmed or lightly armed warrior could defeat a heavily armed and armored enemy on the battlefield. Ideally, the samurai would be armed and would not need to rely on such techniques.[citation needed]
In later times, other koryū developed into systems more familiar to the practitioners of the jujutsu commonly seen today. These systems are generally designed to deal with opponents neither wearing armor nor in a battlefield environment. For this reason, they include extensive use of atemi waza (vital-striking technique). These tactics would be of little use against an armored opponent on a battlefield. They would, however, be quite valuable to anyone confronting an enemy or opponent during peacetime dressed in normal street attire. Occasionally, inconspicuous weapons such as knives or tessen (iron fans) were included in the curriculum.[citation needed]
Today, jujutsu is practiced in many forms, both ancient and modern. Various methods of jujutsu have been incorporated or synthesized into judo and aikido, as well as being exported throughout the world and transformed into sport wrestling systems, adopted in whole or part by schools of karate or other unrelated martial arts, still practiced as they were centuries ago, or all of the above.
Tōjutsu
Tōjūtsu (刀術:とうじゅうつ), the art of the sword, is believed by many to be the paramount martial art, surpassing all others. Regardless of the truth of that belief, the sword itself has been the subject of stories and legends through virtually all cultures in which it has been employed as a tool for violence. In Japan, the use of the katana is no different. Although originally the most important skills of the warrior class were skill at riding a horse and shooting the bow, this eventually gave way to swordsmanship. The earliest swords, which can be dated as far back as the Kofun era (3rd and 4th centuries) were primarily straight bladed. According to legend, curved swords made strong by the famous folding process were first forged by the smith Amakuni in 700 A.D. More accurate sources explain that the folding process was brought to Japan from China.
The primary development of the sword occurred between 987 A.D. and 1597 A.D. This development is characterized by profound artistry during peaceful eras, and renewed focus on durability, utility, and mass production during the intermittent periods of warfare, most notably civil war during the 12th century and Mongolian invasion during the 13th century (which in particular saw the transition from mostly horseback archery to hand to hand ground fighting).
This development of the sword is paralleled by the development of the methods used to wield it. During times of peace, the warriors trained with the sword, and invented new ways to implement it. During war, these theories were tested. After the war ended, those who survived examined what worked and what didn't, and passed their knowledge on. In 1600 A.D., Tokugawa Ieyasu gained total control of all of Japan, and the country entered a period of prolonged peace that would last until the first world war. During this time, the techniques to use the sword underwent a transition from a primarily utilitarian art for killing, to one encompassing a philosophy of personal development and spiritual perfection.
The terminology used to describe the Japanese art of swordsmanship is somewhat ambiguous. Many names have been used to describe various aspects of the art, or to encompass the art as a whole.
Kenjūtsu
- Main article: Kenjutsu.
Kenjutsu (剣術:けんじゅうつ),
Battōjūtsu
- Main article: Battōjutsu.
Battōjūtsu (抜刀術:ばっとうじゅうつ)
Iaijūtsu and Iaidō
- Main article: Iaidō.
Iaijutsu (居合術:いあいじゅうつ)
Other Koryū Martial Arts
The most common koryū martial arts have been detailed above. However, there were many weapons employed by the warriors of feudal Japan, and an art of wielding each. The following martial arts (which are almost entirely weapon arts) are mostly still practiced today, and some have made the transition to gendai budō
Archery
Archery, the art of wielding the bow, was originally the primary art of the Japanese warrior class. Warfare was conducted with the armies almost entirely mounted, and the ability to fire a bow while riding a horse was of paramount importance. Later, archery declined in favor of the sword.
Sōjūtsu
- Main article: Sōjutsu.
Sōjūtsu (槍術:そうじゅうつ)
Naginatajūtsu
- Main article: Naginatajutsu.
Naginatajūtsu (長刀術:なぎなたじゅうつ)
Kusarigamajūtsu
- Main article: Kusarigamajutsu.
Kusarigamajūtsu (鎖鎌:くさりがまじゅうつ)
Tessenjūtsu
- Main article: Tessenjutsu.
Tessenjūtsu (鉄扇術:てっせんじゅうつ)
Oshikīuchi
- Main article: Oshikīuchi.
Oshikīuchi (おしきいうち)
Gendai Budō
- Main article: Gendai budō.
Gendai budō (現代武道:げんだいぶどう), literally meaning "modern martial way", is a generic term used to describe Japanese martial arts that are considered "modern". That is, either the art was founded after the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1866, or an art practiced since before 1866 changed its methodology in such a way that it lost koryū status, and is now considered gendai budō. For example, aikido and judo are examples of gendai budō that were founded in the modern era, while iaidō represents the modernization of a practice that has existed for centuries.
The core difference is, as was explained under "koryū", above, that koryū arts are practiced as they were when their primary utility was for use in war, while the primary purpose of gendai budō is for self-improvement, with application as a secondary purpose. Additionally, many of the gendai budō have included a more modern sporting element to them. Judo and kendo are both good examples of this.
Judo
- Main article: Judo.
Judo (柔道:じゅうどう, jūdō), literally meaning "gentle way" or "way of softness", is a modern martial art, practiced primarily as a sport, and is a form of wrestling.
Judo was created by Kano Jigoro (1860 – 1938) at the end of the nineteenth century. Kano was a brilliant martial artist educated at the Tokyo Imperial University. The combination of martial talent and formal education enabled Kano to take the koryū martial arts he learned (specifically Kito-ryū and Tenjin Shin'yo-ryū jujutsu), and systematicaly reinvent them into a martial art with an emphasis on freestyle pracice and competition. Kano devised a powerful system of new techniques and training methods, which famously culminated on June 11, 1886, in a tournament that would later be dramatized by celebrated Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, in the film "Sanshiro Sugata" (1943). In that tournament, fifteen of Kano's students faced fifteen students from a rival jujutsu school. The result was two losses, one draw, and twelve victories for the judo students.[citation needed]
Judo became an Olympic sport in 1964, and has spread throughout the world. Kano Jigoro's original school, the "Kodokan", has students worldwide, and many other schools have been founded by Kano's students. Of particular note is Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, which traces its history back to Kodokan judo practictioner Mitsuya Maeda, who emigrated to Brazil in the early twentieth century and taught his judo there. Today, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is a practice distinct from Olympic judo, which is the predominant form of judo practiced.[citation needed]
Judo contains the substantially same emphasis on the personal, spritual, and physical self-improvement of its practitioners as can be found throughout gendai budō.
Kendo
- Main article: Kendo.
Kendo (剣道:けんどう, kendō), meaning the "way of the sword", is the sport of Japanese fencing.
Aikido
- Main article: Aikido.
Aikido (合氣道:あいきどう, aikidō) is a gendai budō, a modern Japanese martial art, developed by Morihei Ueshiba. The art consists of "striking" and "joint locking" techniques and is known for its fluidity and blending with an attacker, rather than meeting "force with force". Emphasis is upon joining with the rhythm and intent of the opponent in order to find the optimal position and timing with which to apply force. Aikido is also known for emphasizing the spiritual and philosophical development of its students reflecting the religious background of its founder.
Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, incorporating training movements such as those for the yari (spear), jō (a short quarterstaff), and perhaps also juken (bayonet). Arguably the strongest influence is that of kenjutsu and in many ways, an aikido practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman.
Others
Like kyudo, and other "do" versions of originally koryu arts.
Karate
- Main article: Karate.
Karate (空手:からて)