Western Chalukya literature in Kannada

Territory of the Western Chalukyas in India (c. 1100 CE), their Hoysala feudatory and other neighbours

The Western Chalukya Empire (973–1200), in what is now southern India, produced a large body of literature in the Kannada language. This dynasty, which ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya dynasty for its theoretical relationship to the sixth-century Chalukya dynasty of Badami. They are differentiated from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty. Kannada literature in the Chalukya court, which constituted the bulk of the courtly textual production, pertained mostly to writings relating to the socio-religious development of the Jain faith. The earliest well-known writers of merit belonging to the Shaiva faith (devotees of the god Shiva) are from this period.

For a brief period (1162–1183), the Kalachuris, a dynasty of kings who had earlier migrated from central India and served as governors for several generations under the Western Chalukyas (from either Mangalavedhe or Annigeri) exploited the growing weakness of their overlords and annexed the Chalukyan capital Kalyani. Under the patronage of the new line of kings which was known to favour the Shaiva faith, and whose prime minister was the well-known Kannada poet and social reformer Basavanna, a native form of poetic literature called Vachana literature (lit "utterance" or "saying" or "sentence") proliferated. The beginnings of the Vachana poetic tradition in the Kannada speaking region however traces back to the early 11th century. Around 1183, the last Chalukya scion, Somesvara IV, overthrew the Kalachuris to regain control of the royal city. But his efforts were in vain as other prominent Chalukya vassals, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas and the Seunas destroyed the remnants of the Chalukya power forcing them to fade into history.

Writing Kannada literature in the Sanskritic champu metre, composed of prose and verse, was popularised by the Chalukyan court poets. However, with the advent of the Veerashaiva (lit, "brave devotees of the god Shiva") movement in the mid-12th century, poets favoured the native tripadi (three line verse composed of eleven ganas or prosodic units), hadugabba (song-poem) and free verse metres for their poems. Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets, noblemen, royalty, ascetics and saints who wrote in the marga (main stream) style, but also by commoners and artisans, including cobblers, weavers, cowherds and shepherds who wrote in the desi (folk) style. These Vachana poets (called Vachanakaras) revolutionised Kannada literature, rejecting themes that eulogised kings and noblemen, and writing didactic poems that were closer to spoken and sung form of the language. In addition to hundreds of male poets, over thirty women poets have been recorded, some of who wrote along with their husbands.

Overview

Inscribed handwriting of poet Ranna (c. 982 CE) reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola

Inscribed handwriting of Chavundaraya (c. 978), Western Ganga minister and Kannada prose writer, on Chandragiri hill in Shravanabelagola

Towards the end of the tenth century, a new Karnata dynasty, called the Western Chalukyas, had come to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. Their earliest inscription is dated to c. 957 and is ascribed to a governor Tailapa II (who became the founding king of the empire) of Tardavadi in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka. An inscription from c. 967 suggests that an unsuccessful rebellion was staged by a local Chalukya chief Chattideva and the Kadamba chief of Banavasi. These events however paved the way for Tailapa II to launch a successful rebellion with the help of the Kadamba chief of Hangal against the Rashtrakuta King Karka II.

The Kannada language, which had flourished in the Rashtrakuta court, found enthusiastic support from the Chalukya kings. According to Professor S.N. Sen, Kannada literature under the Chalukyas reached "perfection of form". Scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed that ninety percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada, a virtual displacement of Sanskrit as the language of courtly discourse. Literary writings in Kannada from this period can be broadly subdivided as follows: dominance in the 11th century by Jain scholars of the court whose writings were in the classical champu metre, first time writings on secular subjects by Jain authors on topics ranging from the sciences and astrology to erotics, emergence of the earliest Vachana poets who wrote in native metres (tripadi and hadugabba), the rise of the Veerashaiva movement and the proliferation of their devotional literature (called Vachana Sahitya) in the mid-12th century, the consolidation of grammar, and the waning of popularity of the Jain literature towards the end of the 12th century.

For a few centuries after Kavirajamarga (850), the first available Kannada literary work, Jain writings had adhered to Sanskritic metrics that had been recognised by the state as the path for future Kannada writers while subjugating native metrical forms to a subordinate state. Jain writings thus used impressive Sanskrit derived verses interspersed with prose to extol the virtues of their patron kings, who were often compared to heroes from the Hindu epics. If Adikavi Pampa (941) compared his patron, the feudatory Chalukya King Arikesari to Pandava prince Arjuna, Ranna found it suitable to compare King Satyasraya to Pandava Bhima. This literary style was to loose popularity, which it did from the mid-12th century, with the rise of revolutionary notions about the social and cultural order. A new religious faith was propagated by the Veerashaivas whose ascendancy is called the "Veerashaiva movement" and their communicative genre, the Vachana.

While the Vachana poetry is generally categorised as a part of the pan-Indian Bhakti (devotional) literature, such generalisations however tend to disguise the very esoteric and anti-bhakti positions taken by many Vachanakaras. By writing their poems in native metres, in a language close to the spoken form of Kannada, the Vachana poets had made redundant literary elitism and the hitherto dominant nexus between temple, state and monastery from the realm of literature. The origin of the Veerashaiva ideology and the beginnings of their poetry is unclear. According to D.R. Nagaraj, a scholar on literary cultures in history, modern scholars tend to favour two broad views. The integrationists, such as L. Basavaraju, trace the source of Vachana poetic tradition to the Sanskrit Upanishads (Hindu scriptures) and the Agamas (Hindu doctrine), though this does not explain why the movement did not blossom earlier or in the neighbouring Telugu speaking region where radical Shaiva (believers of the god Shiva) sects were known to be active. The indigenists, such as Chidananda Murthy, M.M. Kalaburgi and G.S. Shivarudrappa propose a native Karnataka origin of the poetry, though they are yet to fully explain its uniqueness.

At about this time, adding to pressure from the popularity of the Vachana canon in northern Kannada speaking region, to which the Jain authors of traditional champu style had no immediate response, the noted Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana of the southern Kannada speaking region converted from Jainism to Vaishnavism (a Hindu sect devoted to the god Vishnu). The popularity of Ramanujacharya's philosophy had spread in the Hoysala lands and the Srivaishnava (a sub-sect of Vaishnavism) influence was on the ascendant. Rudrabhatta, a court poet of Hoysala King Veera Ballala II blazed the literary trail for later Kannada writers of the Vaishnava cadre. By the late 13th century, the Veerashaiva writers, who were by now writing allegorical inscriptions and biographies of famous Vachanakaras of the 12th century, were in stiff competition with the Jains, whose earliest attempts to veer away from traditional puranic (philosophical) themes of renunciation are seen in the writings of Hoysala writers Nemichandra and Andayya. The Lilavati Prabhandam, by Nemichandra (1170), a true fiction written on the topic of love, erotics, and of the victory of Kamadeva (god of love) over his arch rival Shiva is the first among such writings. It was followed by Kabbigara Kava ("Poets defender", 1215–1237) by Andayya, also a work depicting a war between Kamadeva and the god Shiva. Despite these efforts, the Jain literary influence was to recede in the coming decades and centuries, being relegated mostly to the coastal Kannada speaking region. Works of enduring quality were still produced by maverick authors such as Ratnakaravarni (1557), though their numbers were fewer.

Contemporaneous to these developments, Nagavarma II wrote his Kannada grammar, the Karnataka bhashabhushana ("Ornament of Karnataka language", 1042 or 1145). A milestone in the history of Kannada literature, it helped consolidate the language as competitor to established languages such as Sanskrit and Prakrit, bringing the local language within the realm of literary cosmopolitanism. It has been proposed that writing a Kannada grammar in Sanskrit language was essential to Nagavarma II whose aim may have been to rebut Sanskritic scholars of the day who may have considered Kannada a language of the common man and its grammar as underdeveloped. In addition to the Chalukya patronage, Kannada poets and writers of this period were popular in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western Deccan. The Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris, the Seunas, the Gangas and the Silharas are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature.

Kannada writings

Jain Court literature

Age of Ranna

Template:Kannada poets in Western Chalukya Empire The late 10th century was a period of consolidation of the fledgeling empire with King Tailapa II and his successor, King Satyasraya, warring against their neighbours, the Shilharas of south Konkan, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Paramara of central India and the Chola Dynasty of Tanjore. Uneffected by these political developments, Kannada literature continued to flourish in the royal court. Ranna and his predecessors, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna, are considered by historians K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Sailendra Nath Sen and A.K. Warder as the "three gems of Kannada literature". Ranna was born in a family of bangle sellers in Mudhol (modern Bagalkot district, Karnataka state) and was the court poet of Western Chalukya empire's founding King Tailapa II and his successor, King Satyasraya. In his eary days, he was patronised by the well-known Ganga minister Chavundaraya. Ranna is famous for writing Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain tirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in his magnum opus, the Sahasa Bhima Vijaya ("Victory of bold Bhima", also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his Jain version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.

Unlike Pampa who glorifies Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he coronates at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhana mahanubhava ("a great person"). Perhaps the most poignant piece of elegiac verse in all of ancient Kannada literature is one that describes the heart rendering lamentation (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") of Duryodhana on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu. The dramatic effect given to the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature. Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest available dictionary in Kannada language called the Rannakanda (990) of which only eleven verses are available. His other notable writings were the Chakeresvaracharita and the Parashuramacharitha. According to historian Suryanath Kamath, the latter work which is now considered lost may have been a eulogy of the Ganga minister Chavundaraya, whom the poet admired. For his literary contributions, Ranna was bestowed the title Kavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets") by his patron king.

Another notable writer from the close of the 10th century, Nemichandra, wrote the Kaviraja kunjara and Lilavati (c. 990) with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura (modern Banavasi) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem. Other writers whose works are now considered lost but have been praised by the Chalukya minister Durgasimha (1031) are Kavitavilasa (patronised by King Jayasimha II), Madiraja, Chadrabhatta and Manasija.

Early secular writings

The 11th century witnessed intense competition between the Western Chalukyas and their arch rivals, the Cholas of Tanjore. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, cousins of the Western Chalukyas, became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties. According to R. Narasimhacharya, despite some important contributions, Kannada literary development may have suffered during this period because of the political situation and constant warfare. Chandraraja's Madanatilaka ("Forehead ornament of passion", 1025), written in the champu metre, is the earliest available work on erotics in the Kannada language and an adaptation of the Sanskrit original Kamasutra by Vatsyayana. The narration is a dialogue between the patron and his wife, in posakannada, the most modern Kannada in usage at the time. He was under the patronage of Machiraja, feudatory of King Jayasimha II. Shridharacharya, a Jain Brahmin patronised by King Somesvara I showed his ability to write on scientific subjects such as the Jatakatilaka (1049), the earliest available writing on astrology in Kannada, and Chandraprabha Charite on belles-lettres.

Chavundaraya II, a Shaiva Brahmin (Brahmin devotee of the god Shiva) by faith and a protege of King Jayasimha II wrote Lokopakara (c. 1025) in the champu metre. It is the earliest available encyclopaedia in the Kannada language, written at times with a poetic touch. It comprises twelve chapters and has found popularity in later references as well. The work is on various topics such as daily life, astronomy, astrology and forecasting of events based on the Indian calendar (panchanga phala), sculpture, construction of buildings (vastu vichara) and reservoirs (udakargala), omens, divination of water, preparation of medicine from herbs and plants (vrikshayurveda), general medicine (vaidya), perfumery, cookery and toxicology (vishavaidya). Mentioned in this book is the popular South Indian dish Idli and its preparation by soaking Urad dal (black gram) in butter milk, ground to a fine paste and mixed with the clear water of curd, and spices .

Durgasimha (1031), the Sandhi Vigrahi (minister of war and peace) of King Jayasimha II wrote the well-known Panchatantra ("The five stratagems") in champu style, basing it on Gunadhya's Paishachi language original Brihatkatha. This fable is the first translation of the Panchatantra into a vernacular language of India. Containing sixty fables in all, thirteen of which are original, each is summarised by an ethical moral based on a Jain tenet. Durgasimha also authored the Karnataka Banachatantra, the earliest available commentary in the Kannada language, giving a brief commentary on all the Sanskrit verses he quoted in the Panchatantra writing.

There were other notable writers from the latter part of 11th century. Shantinatha, patronised by King Somesvara II, wrote the poem Sukumaracharita in c. 1068, the Brahmin Advaita (believer of monistic philosophy) saint Nagavarmacharya (1070) of Balipura (modern Balligavi), who was patronised by King Udayatidya (and claims to be his minister of war and peace), a vassal of Chalukya King Somesvara II, wrote Chandrachudamani sataka. In this centum of verses where each ends with the term "Chandrachudamani", another name of the god Shiva, the author treats on viragya (ethics of renunciation). Other writers whose works are considered lost but have been referenced in contemporary writings are Gunachandra and Gunavarma. Gunachandra, who was patronised by King Somesvara II, wrote Parsvabhyudaya and Maghanadisvara. The 12th century writer Nayasena mentions that the patron king "worshipped the feet of Gunachandra". Gunavarma, who earned the honorific Bhuvanaika Vira, a title befitting a warrior rather than a poet is mentioned by grammarian Keshiraja of c. 1260 as the author of Harivamsa. His title identifies him with a Ganga prince called Udayaditya who was a minister and general under Chalukya King Somesvara II (1069–1076). Other writings ascribed to the author are Pushpadanta Purana and Devachandra Prabha Stotra.

Consolidation of grammar

Old Kannada inscription of King Vikramaditya VI dated 1112 CE at Mahadeva Temple in Itagi, Karnataka

The 12th century heralded an age of prosperity, and cultural and literary developments got a boost. King Vikramaditya VI, whose name holds a pride of place in the history of Karnataka ascended the throne in 1076 and ruled for fifty years. His court was adorned with some of the most well-known writers of Kannada and Sanskrit literature. Nayasena, whose writings are dated by the scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock to the 10th century and by R. Narasimhacharya to c. 1112, wrote the Dharmamritha, a book containing fifteen stories that belong to the genre of fable and parable. Well known among these stories, which teach about Jain tenets are "Yajnadatta and the mongoose", "Kapalika and the young elephant" and "Serpent, tiger, monkey and the goldsmith who had fallen in the old well". The writing is one of intense self interrogation where the author criticises the beliefs of all contemporaneous religions while decrying the contamination in the original Jain beliefs due to external cultural influences, such as the practice of violent and bloody rituals and the caste system.

Brahmashiva, the court poet of King Vikramaditya VI earned the title Kavichakravarti ("poet laureate") from his patron for his writing Samayaparikshe ("Analysis of the doctrine", c. 1125). In this philosophical writing which contains touches of propagandist satire and humor, the author seeks to prove the virtues of Jainism as superior over all other contemporary religions. Brahmashiva portrays contemporary life and beliefs of the people of the Kannada speaking region and criticises Hinduism, the conversion of a Jain temple originally dedicated to the tirthankar Chandrapraba in Kholapur into a Hindu temple deifying the goddess Mahalakshmi and the existence religious cosmopolitanism within a household where family members followed multiple faiths. The author also expresses unhappiness over the eroding popularity of Jainism in southern India, due the rising popularity of the Veerashaiva movement. Prince Kirtivarma, a younger brother of King Vikramaditya VI wrote Govaidya ("Cattle science"), the earliest available writing in Kannada on veterinary science. The writing is also about medicine and magic. Karnaparya's account of the life of the 22nd tirthankar Neminatha, the Neminathapurana (c. 1145) in champu metre, includes some details of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and of the god Krishna from a Jain angle.

The exact dating of grammarian Nagavarma-II has been debated. Untill the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam ("Life of Varadhama", c. 1042) written in Kannada by an author who goes by the same name, it was broadly accepted by scholars including E.P. Rice, R. Narasimhacharya and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-12th century (1145) and was also the Katakacharya ("poet laureate") of Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II. However, of late, the encyclopaedia published by the Sahitya Akademi (1988), D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock concur that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-11th century and was the poet laureate of Chalukya King Jayasimha II, who also had the epithet Jagadekamalla ("Lord of the world"). Irrespective of when Nagavarma II lived, it is accepted that few scholars in the history of Kannada literature made important contributions in as many subjects as he did. His writings on grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his writings, the historically important Kavyavalokana on grammar, poetics and rhetoric is considered path breaking and contains all the essentials of Kannada grammar. The first section of the book is called Sabdasmriti and contains five chapters dealing with euphonic combinations, nouns, compounds, nominal derivatives and verbs respectively. It is based on earlier works by the Sanskrit grammarians Dandin and Bhamaha. The Karnataka Bhashabhushana, a consolidated and exhaustive Kannada grammar, written by him in the Sanskrit language follows the fundamental framework of the Katantra school of Sanskrit grammar. For his contribution to Kannada grammar, Nagavarma II earned the honorific Sarvavarma, the name of the Sanskrit grammarian of the Satavahana era. His Abhidana Vastukosa, ("Treasury of significations") a lexicon, gives Kannada equivalents of nearly eight thousand Sanskrit words and is considered an achievement which attempted to give Kannada language considerable footing in the world of Sanskrit literary dominance. Modern Kannada poet Govinda Pai proposed that the author of Karnataka Bhashabhushana was a different Nagavarma who belonged to the mid-12th century.

Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyanakaraka (1150), a translation of the Sanskrit writing Kalyanakaraka by Pujyapada is the earliest writing on medicine prescribing an entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic diet. Udayadityalankara of 1150 is attributed to a Chola prince who went by the name Udayaditya.

Bhakti literature

Early poets

A sculptural depiction at Kudalasangama of the 12th century Veerashaiva congregation

The meteoric rise of the Veerashaiva socio-cultural movement in a caste-ridden 12th century Karnataka has historic significance because it involved commoners from the lower strata of society, people who had hitherto been denied access to even basic education. The essence of the movement (and the resulting Vachana poems) was the rejection of temple-based ritual worship and mainstream Sanskritic texts and scriptures, while encouraging the search for inner truth. The followers of the faith prayed not to a conventional image of a God but rather wore a linga (the universal symbol of the god Shiva) on their body. The beginnings of the Vachana poetry (called Vachana Sahitya or "Vachana literature", Anubhava Sahitya or "mystic literature" and sometimes Sharana Sahitya or "literature of the devotees"), a unique form of expression in the Kannada language can however be traced back to the early 11th century.

Names of three poets from the early period and some of their poems are available. Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler turned saint is considered by H.S. Shiva Prakash as the first Vachana poet, was held in high esteem by later day poets of the 12th century, including Basavanna. Only ten of Chennaiah's poems, expressing his resentment of the caste system in metaphors taken from the cobblers trade are extant today. Dohara Kakkaiah is the second poet. A dalit by birth, his six available poems are confessional in nature, a theme seen in the later poems of Basavanna as well. Devara Dasimaiah (or Jedara Dasimaiah) is better known because a hundred and fifty of his poems are available. Written in a deft and concise language of proverbs and metaphors, his poems encourage monotheistic belief in the god Shiva. Dasimaiah's wife Duggale qualifies as Kannada's first women poet, though only a few of her poems are available.

Rebel literature in the Kalachuri interregnum

Basavanna, social reformer and Kannada poet, 12th century

In mid-12th century, the Kalachuris successfully rebelled against their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexed their capital Kalyani. During this short and turbulent period lasting three decades (1153–1183), a new faith called Veerashaivism (or Lingayatism) developed as a revolt against the existing social order of the Hindu society. Some of the followers of this faith wrote poems expressing their mystic experiences and devotion to the god Shiva. According to H.S. Shiva Prakash, the Kalachuri period is one of the high points of medieval Kannada literature. Basavanna (or Basava), a social reformer and the prime minister of Kalachuri King Bijjala II is generally regarded as the inspiration behind this movement. Allama Prabhu, Chennabasava, Siddharama, Akka Mahadevi, and Kondugoli Keshiraja are the other well-known poets among more than three hundred in this cadre. A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("Hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems which were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical and satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning. The poems display a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato. Many of these poems are anonymous, but the authors' names are identifiable by the unique divine name of the god Shiva that is invoked in the poem. Some poems contain a kalajnana (prophecy of the future) section which forecasts the arrival of a Messiahnic king called Vira Vasantha Raya who would revive Kalyani and the Veerashaiva faith to its full glory.

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Sangamanatha temple at Kudalasangama, place where Basavanna found his inspiration

Born to Brahmin parents (in Basavana Bagewadi, modern Bijapur district, Karnataka state), Basavanna (1106–1167) rejected the ritual thread ceremony (upanayanam) and left home for Kudalasangama, a holy place at the confluence of the Krishna and Ghataprabha rivers in modern Bagalkot district, Karnataka state. There, during his tutelage under saint Ishanyaguru, Basavanna had visions of his life's purpose. The life of Basavanna marks a milestone in the history of Karnataka state, India. A towering personality, his zeal and socio-cultural achievements in the realm of peace and equality of mankind have brought about enduring changes in society. Information about his life and achievements come from the many Kannada writings, the earliest of which were written just after his death. Hoysala poet Harihara's Basavarajadevara ragale is the first known biography on Basavanna. Vijayanagara poet-writer Bhima Kavi's Basavapurana (1369), Singiraja's Amala Basavacharite (1500), Vijayanagara minister Lakkanna Dandesa's Shiva Tatwachintamani (1425–1450) are some of the important sources. The cornerstone of Basavanna's philosophy was "work-worship is heaven", the rejection of mere worship of God and the acceptance of once own body as a temple of God. Basavanna strongly advocated a life of complete commitment to work. As a poet, he finds a pride of place in Kannada literature. His deftly written poems, all of which end with the word "Kudalasangama" (lit, "God of the confluence of two rivers", the poets version of the god Shiva), 1300 of which have survived, have been described by Shiva Prakash H.S., a scholar on medieval Kannada literature, as lyrical, satirical, deeply contemplative and self critical. Though Basavanna himself was a minister under the patronage of the king, his poems betray his contempt towards kingship. Above all, his poems convey his deep devotion to the god Shiva. In one satirical poem, Basavanna decries the hypocrisy of a snake charmer and his wife, who on their way to find a bride for their son cancel the journey when they come across a bad omen–another snake charmer and his wife.

Akka Mahadevi, noted Kannada female poet, 12th century

Allama, also known as Allama Prabhu (lit, "Allama the master") was a mendicant saint-poet who took to the path of ascetism after the untimely death of his wife Kamalate. He was born into a family of hereditary temple performers (and was himself an expert on the drum called maddale) in Balligavi, a town of great antiquity (in modern Shivamogga district, Karnataka state). Stricken by the grief of his wife's death and wandering around, he came across a saint called Animisayya who initiated him into ascetism. Ascribed to Allama are 1,321 extant poems, each of which end with the word "Guhesvara" (lit, "Lord of the Cave", a form of the god Shiva), for it is said Allama found enlightenment in a cave. Allama's cryptic poems, though full of kindness, are known for their satire, mockery, invective and rejection of siddhis (occult powers). H.S. Shiva Prakash compares Allama's poems to the Koans (riddles) in Japanese Zen poetry. According to D.R. Nagaraj, Allama's mystic poems are in a category of its own and do not qualify as bhakti poems which are typically characterised by transparent devotion. While Basavanna's zeal and influence led to the formation and popularity of the Veerashaiva movement in Kalyani, it was Allama who was the undisputed spiritual authority presiding over the gatherings. Chamarasa, a well-known 15th century Kannada writer in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II wrote Prabhulinga Lile (1430), an account of the preachings and achievements of Allama; it was translated into Telugu and Tamil language at the behest of his patron king, and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages as well. In the story, Allama is considered an incarnation of the Hindu god Ganapathi while Ganapathi's mother, Parvati (Shiva's consort) took the form of a princess of Banavasi. Another notable anthology called the Sunyasampadane ("The achievement of nothingness") was compiled on the life of Allama and gives useful details about his interaction with contemporary saints.

Basavanna's nephew, Chennabasava, is more popular as a strategist and a theologian. Apart from authoring some notable and lengthy Vachana poems, he wrote on yogic experiences in a book called Mantragopya. He is also known to have been the manager of the gatherings and the Mahamane ("great house") of Basavanna. Credited to Siddharama, another influential devotee and a native of Sonnalige (modern Sholapur, Maharashtra state) are devotional writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems). His poems were influenced by Basavanna's ideology and convey rejection of blind beliefs, the caste system, and sexual discrimination.

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Chennabasavanna, a prominent Vachana poet, 12th century

Prominent among the more than thirty women poets was Akka Mahadevi. Born in a merchant family of Udatadi (or Udugani) near the ancient city of Banavasi (Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka state) and possibly married against her wishes to a feudal chief called Kausika, she renounced worldly pleasures opting for a life of devotion and ascetism. She is often compared to such notable female saint-poets of Hinduism as Andal, Lalleswari and Meera Bai, and is considered one of the prominent female poets of the Kannada language. The 430 short poems written by her, in a language that depicts her love for her divine lover "Channa Mallikarjuna" (lit, "Beautiful Mallikarjuna", another name for the god Shiva), and the 15th century anthology, the Sunyasampadane, are the main sources of information about her life. Her poetry is characterised by scorn for worldly possessions, and detachment from worldly affairs. A popular poem written by her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cocoon around itself, making it impossible to extricate itself and eventually dies in it–the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads, to worldly desires. In a poem full of puns, the poet prays that her god, whom she describes as the "Lord of fragrant Jasmines", may cut through the cocoon of desires so she may become free like a butterfly. In addition to poetry, she is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi, the latter written is in the native tripadi metre describing the various stages of spiritual enlightenment. Tradition has it that Akka Mahadevi preferred to wear no clothes, a form of renunciation which in her own words was the "most exalted spiritual state". She died in a plantain grove while still in her twenties in the holy city of Srisailam (in modern Andhra Pradesh state).

The Vachana writers of this period came from varied backgrounds, most commonly from the lower strata of society. The literary freedom they enjoyed resulted in many poems being written. Molige Maraiah, a wood cutter, Madivala Machayya, a washerman, Ambigere Chowdiah, a ferryman, Vaidya Sanganna, a doctor, Madara Dhooliah, a cobbler, Hendada Mariah, a toddy tapper, Turugahi Ramanna, a cowherd, Aydakki Maraiah, a rice gatherer, Nubiya Chaudaiah, a rope maker, Kannadi Remmitande, a mirror maker, Vokkaliga Muddanna, a farmer, Revanna Siddha, a shepard are but a few in a long list of poets. Inscriptions mention a Bahurupi Chaudayya who was well known for his histrionic talent while reciting his poems and Mokari Baramayya who is described as a "Brahma" (creator) of all arts with knowledge and talent in singing, dancing and playing musical instruments. Several women poets whose poems are no less impressive than those of Akka Mahadevi's are identified. Basavanna's sister Nagalambike and his two wives, Gangambike and Neelambike are well-known, though Neelambike seems to have been more prolific. Some female poets were wives of male poets in the Veerashaiva congregation. Satyakka, whose poems compare in quality to those of Akka Mahadevi, Lakkamma, Kelavve, a dalit women whose poems scorned at the upper caste people, Ketaladevi, Guddavve, the wife of a comb-maker, Mahadevi and Lingamma, poets who wrote in a mystic language, Amuge Rayamma and Akkamma who don't spare the hypocrisy of religious pretences, Kadire Remavva, a spinner who employed a form of cryptic language called bedagu ("cryptic"), Muktayakka, known for her debates with the patron saint Allama himself, and even a princess called Bontadevi.

Challenging the very core of the caste-based society, the Sharanas (another name for Veerashaiva devotees) conducted a pratiloma marriage (marriage between a upper caste Brahmin bride and a lower caste Shudra groom). The resulting confrontation between rebellious Sharanas and the conservative upper classes lead to the assassination of King Bijjala II and the eviction of most Sharanas, including Basavanna, from Kalyani. The successors of King Bijala II were weak prompting Chalukya Somesvara IV to rebuild the empire by invading Kalyani. But his efforts failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Somesvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time. Though these turbulent events caused a setback to the Veerashaiva gatherings and creation of poems, the movement had however set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Literature after the Chalukyas

The political situation in the Deccan experienced major political upheavals in the late 12th century when the two great powers of southern India, the Western Chalukyas of Basavakalyan and the Cholas of Tanjore fading into history. Their vast territories were divided between four powerful dynasties, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Seuna Yadavas and the Pandays. However, these political developments had no impact on cultural developments. The post Chalukya period is characterised by the popularity of Shaiva (and Veerashaiva in particular) and Vaishnava devotional writings, though secular and courtly topics, also written in native metres, continued to flourish. The native metres which came into vogue were the shatpadi (six line verse), the tripadi, the ragle (rhymed couplets) and the sangatya (compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment a musical instrument). The whole gamut of Kannada writings changed from marga ("formal", due to Sanskritic influence) to desi ("vernacular") and become more accessible to the common man.

The Hoysala court poets, some of who are noted for pioneering works in native metres, belonged to both the Shaiva faith (not belonging to the Vachana poetic tradition) and the Jain faith. The earliest well-known Brahmin writers also emerged during the late 12th century and wrote on themes ranging from Vaishnava faith (Rudrabhatta's Jagannatha Vijaya, 1185) to secular treatises on poetics (Kavi Kama's Sringara Ratnakara, on poetic sentiment and flavor). The Veerashiava poet Harihara, one of the most prominent poets of the medieval era, established the ragale tradition with his biography of Basavanna (Basavaraja Devara ragale, 1160), the earliest available biography of the social reformer and of the Kannada language as well. His talented nephew Raghavanka established the shatpadi metre in his unique and original narration of the story of King Harishchandra called Harishchandra Kavya (1200). Among Jain authors, Janna is immortalised by his champu writing Yashodhara Charite (1207), a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with sadomasochism, transmigration of the soul, and Sisumayana is credited with introducing a new composition called sangatya (1232) in his allegorical poems Tripuradahana ("Burning of the triple fortress") and Anjanacharita.

After the fall of the Kalachuri empire, the Vachana poetry faded temporarily. However, by the 14th century, the Veerashaivas who held influential positions in the Vijayanagara Empire were exerting their influence, especially during the reign of King Deva Raya II (or Prouda Deva Raya). Although this period is not as famous for the proliferation of the Vachana poems as the 12th century was, contemporary writers adopted the preachings of the saints and devotees of the bygone era and made them the protagonists of their writings. Having found a rallying point to spread their faith, they began an era of commentaries, anthologies and biographies. Famous among biographies were Bhimakavi's Basavapurana (1369) and Singiraja's Mala-Basavapurana (or Singirajapurana, 1500) on the life of Basavanna, Chamarasa's Prabhulingalile (1425) was on the life of Allama Prabhu and Virupaksha Pandita's Chenna Basavapurana (1584) was an account of Chennabasava. Among a long list of anthologies, the Shunyasampadane, compiled in four versions, are the most well-known. The first version, completed in 1400 by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah, was written in the form of a dialogue between the protagonist (saint Allama Prabhu) and other well-known devotees. Later versions were compiled by Halage Arya (1500), Gummalapura Siddhalingayati (1560) and Gulur Siddhaveeranodaya (1570). Writing Vachana poems was popularised again from the mid-16th century, though Kannada language had to wait till the 17th century to discover its greatest modern poet in this genre. Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing")–a mendicant poet-moralist a and social reformer left a indelible imprint on Kannada literature with his didactic poems, numbering about two thousand in all. Written to instruct the country folk in the simple native tripadi metre, these poems covered a vast range of topics, from caste and religion to economics and administration, from arts and crafts to family life and health. Sarvajna's poems constitute some of Kannada's most popular works.

The noted Brahmin writers of the Vijayanagara empire, Kumara Vyasa, Timmanna Kavi, Kumara Valmiki and Chatu Vitthalanata used the shatpadi metre to perfection in their versions of the Hindu epics. Inspired by the Vachana writers who used the song-prose medium to write their poems, the Haridasa poets who were unrelated to the court used genres such as the kirthane (musical compositions with two refrains–composition based on raga, or tune and tala, or rhythem), the Suladi (rhythm-based) and the Ugabhoga (melody-based) to convey their devotion to God. Their contributions to the south Indian classical music (Carnatic music) is well acclaimed, Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa being the most popular poets of this cadre. Purandaradasa was the most prolific Haridasa poet who wrote in the ragale metre and also earned the honorific Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ("Father of Carnatic music"), Kanakadasa was versatile in many native metres. His Mohana tarangini is in the sangatya metre, the Nalacharita and a book of morals for children called Haribhakti-sara are in the shatpadi metre.

References

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External links

• "History of Kannada Literature-I". History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
• "History of Kannada Literature Book by Rice E. P." History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 2008-03-08. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)