Arrow poison
Arrow poisons are used to poison arrow heads or darts for the purposes of hunting. They have been used by hunter-gather peoples worldwide and are still in use in areas of South America, Africa and Asia.
Notable examples are the poisons secreted from the skin of the poison arrow frog and curare (or 'ampi'), a general term for a range of plant-derived arrow poisons used by the indigenous peoples of South America.[1]
Poisoned arrows have featured in mythology, notably the Greek story of Hercules slaying the Hydra monster. The Greek hero Odysseus poisons his arrows with hellebore in Homer's Odyssey. Poisoned arrows also figure in Homer's epic about the Trojan War, the Iliad, in which both Greeks and Trojans used toxic arrows and spears.[2]
Poison arrows were used by real peoples in the ancient world, including the Gauls, ancient Romans, and the nomadic Scythians and Soanes. Ancient Greek and Roman historians describe recipes for posioning projectiles and historical battles in which poison arrows were used. Alexander the Great encountered poisoned projectiles during his conquest of India (probably dipped in the venom of Russell's viper) and the army of the Roman general Lucullus suffered grievous poison wounds from arrows shot by nomads during the Third Mithradatic War (1st century BC). [3]
Native American use of poisoned arrows in hunting and warfare is also documented. [4]
Projectiles were poisoned with various nefarious substances in Chinese warfare.[5]
Balder's death in the Norse myths features poison arrows.
Varieties
Arrow poisons around the world are created from many sources:
Plant based poisons
- Curare is a generic term for arrow poisons that contain D-tubocurarine. Most frequently it is derived from the bark of Strychnos toxifera or S. guianensis (Family Loganiaceae) and of Chondrodendron tomentosum or Sciadotenia toxifera (Family Menispermaceae). It is a muscle relaxant which causes death by paralyzing the respiratory system, resulting in asphyxiation.[1]
- Inee, also known as onaye, is a type of arrow poison used in sub-Saharan West Africa, particularly in the areas of Togo and Cameroon. It is made from the plant Strophanthus hispidus, and as such relies on cardiac glycosides (strophanthin) found in the genus Strophanthus for its effect.[6]
- In Africa arrow poisons are made from plants that have cardiac glycosides from such plants as Acokanthera (containing ouabain, a cardiac glycoside), oleander (Nerium), and milkweeds (Family Apocynaceae).[1]
- Poisoned arrows are used widely in the jungle areas of Assam, Burma and Malaysia. The main plant sources for the poisons are members of the Antiaris, Strychnos and Strophanthus genera. Antiaris toxicaria for example, a tree of the mulberry and breadfruit family, is commonly used on Java and its neighbouring islands. The sap or juice of the seeds is smeared on the arrow head on its own or mixed with other plant extracts.[7] The fast-acting active ingredient (either antiarin, strychnine or strophanthin) attacks the central nervous system causing paralysis, convulsions and cardiac arrest.[7]
- Several species of Aconitum or "aconite" have been used as arrow poisons. The Minaro in Ladakh use A. napellus on their arrows to hunt ibex; they were in use recently near lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan.[8], while the Ainus in Japan used a species of Aconitum to hunt bear.[9], and by the Butias and Lepchas in Sikkim and Assam.[10][11] The Chinese also used Aconitum poisons both for hunting,[12] and for warfare.[13]
Animal-based poisons
- In South America, tribes such as the Noanamá Chocó and Emberá Chocó Indians of western Colombia dip the tips of their blowgun darts in the poison found on the skin of three species of Phyllobates, a genus of the poison dart frog. In north Chocó, Phyllobates aurotaenia is used, while in the departments of Risaralda and Choco to the south, P. bicolor is used. In Cauca, only P. terribilis is used for dart making. The poison is generally collected by roasting the frogs over a fire, but the batrachotoxin toxins in P. terribilis are powerful enough that it is sufficient to dip the dart in the back of the frog without killing it.
- In the northern Kalahari, the most commonly used arrow poison is derived from the larva and pupae of beetles of the genus Diamphidia. It is applied to the arrow either by squeezing the contents of the larva directly onto the arrow head, mixing it with plant sap to act as an adhesive, or by mixing a powder made from the dried larva with plant juices and applying that to the arrow tip. The toxin is slow attacking and the injured animal can travel 40-70 miles (64-112 km) before succumbing to the effects.[14]
Preparation
The following 17th century account describes how arrow poisons were prepared in China:
- "In making poison arrows for shooting wild beasts, the tubers of wild aconitum are boiled in water. The resulting liquid, being highly viscous and poisonous, is smeared on the sharp edges of arrowheads. These treated arrowheads are effective in the quick killing of both human beings and animals, even though the victim may shed only a trace of blood."[15]
See also
- Blowgun
- Blowdart
- Fukiya Japanese blowgun
- Loire style Blowgun (French page)
- Ricin
Notes
- ^ a b c "Curare". Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ Adrienne Mayor, Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Overlook 2003, rev ed 2009).
- ^ Mayor, Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs, 2003).
- ^ David Jones, Poison Arrows: North American Indian Hunting and Warfare (2007).
- ^ Ralph Sawyer, Tao of Deception: Unorthodox warfare in Historical and Modern China (2007).
- ^ "Definition of inee". Webster's International Dictionary. 1913. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ a b "Poisoned arrows". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
- ^ St. George, George. Soviet Deserts and Mountains. 1974. Amsterdam, Time-Life International
- ^ Peissel, Michel. 1984. The Ants’ Gold. The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. London, Harvill Press, pp. 99-100.
- ^ Hooker, Joseph Dalton. Himalayan Journals or Notes of a Naturalist. 1854. John Murray, London. Copy downloaded on 17 Sept., 2006 from: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6478 page 168.
- ^ Hutton, J. H. “The occurrence of the Blow-Gun in Assam.” J. H. Hutton. Man, Vol. 24 (Jul., 1924), p. 106.
- ^ Sung, Ying-hsing. T’ien kung k’ai wu. Sung Ying-hsing. 1637. Published as Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications, p. 267.
- ^ Chavannes, Édouard. “Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch’ao (32-102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K’in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.”. 1906. T’oung pao 7, pp. 226-227.
- ^ "How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows". Iziko Museums of Cape Town. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- ^ Sung, Ying-hsing. T’ien kung k’ai wu. Sung Ying-hsing. 1637. Published as Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications, p. 267.