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{{Expand|date=September 2008}}
{{expert-subject|Religion}}
{{Gnosticism}}
'''Gnosticism''' ({{lang-gr|γνώσις}} ''gnōsis'', [[knowledge]]) refers to a diverse, [[syncretistic]] [[religious movement]] consisting of various [[belief systems]] generally united in the teaching that humans are divine [[soul]]s trapped in a [[material world]] created by an imperfect god, the [[demiurge]], who is frequently identified with the [[Abrahamic]] [[God]].


This is a list of financial institutions that have been affected by the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2008]]. The list includes [[bank]]s (including [[commercial banks]] and [[investment banks]]), [[building society|building societies]] and [[Insurance|insurance companies]] that have either been:
The [[demiurge]] may be depicted as an embodiment of evil, or in other instances as merely imperfect and as benevolent as its inadequacy permits. This demiurge exists alongside another remote and unknowable [[Supreme Being]] that embodies good. In order to free oneself from the inferior material world, one needs [[gnosis]], or [[esoteric]] spiritual knowledge available to all through direct experience or knowledge ([[gnosis]]) of God.<ref>Pagels, Elaine. ''The Gnostic Gospels'', Vintage Press, 1989, pgs. 18, 37, 42</ref> Within the sects of gnosticism however only the [[Pneumatic (Gnosticism)|pneumatics]] or [[psychics]] obtain gnosis, the [[hylic]] or [[Somatics]] though human, are doomed. [[Jesus Christ|Jesus of Nazareth]] is identified by some Gnostic sects as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnosis to the earth. In others (e.g. the [[Notzrim]] and [[Mandaeans]]) he is considered a mšiha kdaba "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by [[John the Baptist]].<ref> Macuch, Rudolf (1965). Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: De Gruyter & Co., 61 fn. 105.</ref>
* taken over or merged with another financial institution;
* nationalised by a government or central bank; or
* declared insolvent or liquidated.


In the [[United States]], the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) may assume deposits of banks or allow other banks to assume them. The largest banks to be acquired have been the presumed [[Merrill Lynch]] acquisition by [[Bank of America]], the [[Bear Stearns]] acquisition by [[JPMorgan Chase]], and the [[Countrywide Financial]] acquisition also by Bank of America. [[IndyMac Bank]] was also a large bank that was changed into a [[bridge bank]] by the FDIC, after its failure, until the funds can be disposed of. In addition, the investment bank [[Lehman Brothers]] has filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection]].
Whereas formerly Gnosticism was considered mostly a corruption of Christianity, it now seems clear that traces of Gnostic systems can be discerned some centuries before the Christian Era. <ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06592a.htm</ref> While it may have been suppressed as early as the First Century, thus predating Jesus Christ,<ref>[[Bart D. Ehrman]] ''Lost Christianities''. Oxford University press, 2003, p.188-202</ref> Gnosticism existed in the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Middle East]] in the Second and Third Centuries. Gnosticism became a [[dualistic]] [[heresy]] to Judaism (see [[Notzrim]]), Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy in areas controlled by the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Arian]] Goths (see [[Huneric]]),and the Persian Empire. Conversion to [[Islam]] and the [[Albigensian Crusade]] greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the [[Middle Ages]], though a few isolated communities continue to exist to the present. Gnostic ideas became influential in the philosophies of various [[esoteric]] [[mystical]] movements of the late 19th and 20th Centuries in [[Europe]] and [[North America]], including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.


In the [[United Kingdom]], Her Majesty's Treasury has the power to acquire failing banks under the [[Banking (Special Provisions) Act 2008]]. Using powers granted by this Act, Her Majesty's Treasury acquired the shareholdings of both [[Northern Rock]] and the [[Bradford & Bingley]]; and transferred the savings accounts of failed Icelandic banks to [[ING Direct]]. Anti-terrorism legilsation has been used to sieze assets of the Icelandic banks, the Government of Iceland and the Icelandic central bank in the UK.
==Nature and structure of Gnosticism==
===The main features of gnosticism===


==Acquisitions==
Gnostic systems are typically marked by:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
# The notion of a remote, supreme [[monad (Gnosticism)|monadic]] divinity - this figure is known under a variety of names, including '[[Pleroma]]' and '[[Bythos]]' (Greek, "deep");
|-
# The introduction by emanation of further divine beings, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature;
! Date acquisition is announced
# The subsequent identification of [[the Fall of Man]] as an occurrence with its ultimate foundations within ''divinity itself'', rather than as occurring either entirely or indeed partially through human agency; this stage in the divine emanation is usually enacted through the recurrent Gnostic figure of [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]] (Greek, "wisdom"), whose presence in a wide variety of [[Gnostic texts]] is indicative of her central importance;
! Acquired company
# The introduction of a distinct creator god, named ''demiurgos'' in the [[Platonist]] tradition.<br />Evidence exists that the conception of the demiurge derives from figures in Plato's ''[[Timaeus]]'' and ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''. In the former, the demiurge is the benevolent creator of the universe from pre-existent matter, to whose limitations he is enthralled in creating the cosmos; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic 'desire' in [[Socrates]]' model of the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]] bears a strong resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion.<br />Elsewhere this figure is called '[[Demiurge|Ialdabaoth]]', 'Samael' ([[Aramaic]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel'', 'blind god') or 'Saklas' ([[Syriac]] ''sækla'', 'the foolish one'), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior God, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent.<br />The demiurge typically creates a group of coactors named '[[Archons]]', who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it;
!class="unsortable"|Acquirer
# The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or a production of 'error' but nevertheless as good as its constituent material might allow. This world is typically an inferior [[simulacrum]] of a higher-level reality or consciousness. The inferiority may be compared to the technical inferiority of a [[painting]], [[sculpture]], or other [[handicraft]] to the thing(s) of which those crafts are supposed to be a [[Mimesis|representation]]. In certain other cases it is also perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants;
! Type of company acquired
# The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element 'falls' into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening (leading towards salvation). The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event;
! ~Value ([[United States Dollar|USD]])
# Knowledge of a specific kind as a central factor in this process of restoration, achieved through the mediation of a redeemer figure ([[Christ]], or, in other cases, [[Seth]] or [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]).
!class="unsortable"|References
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|2|22}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Northern Rock]]
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Her Majesty's Government]]
| retail and mortgage bank
|
| align="center"|<ref>{{citenews|title=UK government nationalised Northern rock|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=2008-02-17|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7249575.stm}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|4|01}}
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Bear Stearns]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[JPMorgan Chase]]
| [[Investment bank]]
| align="right"|${{nts|2200000000}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{Citation|last=White|first=Ben|title=Bear Stearns passes into Wall Street history| newspaper = [[Financial Times]]|year=2008|date=[[May 29]]|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d42c01d2-2d8d-11dd-b92a-000077b07658.html?nclick_check=1}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|6|7}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Catholic Building Society]]
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Chelsea Building Society]]
| [[Building Society]]
|
| <ref>>{{citenews|title=Catholic society offers merger bonuses|author=Steve Hodge|publisher=[[Financial Times]]|date=2008-09-05|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a6cf2028-7b73-11dd-b839-000077b07658.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|7|1}}
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Countrywide Financial]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Bank of America]]
| Subprime mortgage lender
| align="right"|${{nts|4000000000}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{citenews|title=Bank of America completes deal for Countrywide Financial|author=[[Associated Press]]|publisher=[[San Jose Mercury News]]|date=2008-07-01|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/breakingnews/ci_9752884}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|7|14}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Alliance & Leicester]]
| {{flagicon|Spain}} [[Banco Santander SA]]
| retail and mortgage bank
| align="right"|
| align="center|
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|8|26}}
| {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Roskilde Bank]]
| {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Danmarks Nationalbank]] (Danish Central Bank)
| Retail bank
| align="right"|${{nts|896800000}} ([[Danish krone|kr]]4,500,000,000)
| align="center"|<ref>{{Cite news|title=Danish central bank buys out ailing Roskilde bank|first=Kim |last=McLaughlin |coauthors=Peter Levring|work=[[Reuters]]|publisher=[[Thomson Reuters]]|date=[[2008-08-26]]|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/bankingFinancial/idUSLP56732520080826|accessdate=2008-10-05}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|8}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Derbyshire Building Society]]
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Nationwide Building Society]]
| [[Building society]]
| align="right"|
| align="center"|
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|8}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Cheshire Building Society]]
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Nationwide Building Society]]
| [[Building society]]
| align="right"|
| align="center"|
|-


| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|14}} - ''Presumed''
The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the [[# Major gnostic schools and their texts|Syrian-Egyptian]] school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of the [[# Major gnostic schools and their texts|Persian gnostic school]] - [[Manicheanism]] and [[Mandaeanism]] - are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical usage of 'Gnosticism' is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while 'Manichean' describes the movements of the Persia school.
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Merrill Lynch]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Bank of America]]
| Investment bank
| align="right"|${{nts|44000000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="wsjournalbabuyingml">{{cite news |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122142278543033525.html?mod=special_coverage |title=Bank of America Reaches Deal for Merrill |author=Matthew Karnitschnig|coauthors=Carrick Mollenkamp, Dan Fitzpatrick |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=2008-09-14}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|16}} - ''Presumed''
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[American International Group]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[United States federal government]]{{ref|aig|A}}
| [[Insurance]] company
| align="right"|${{nts|85000000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="aigfedacquireeightyper">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/business/17insure.html|title=Fed’s $85 Billion Loan Rescues Insurer |author=Edmund L. Andrews, [[et al.]]||publisher=The New York Times |date=2008-09-16}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|17}} -
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Lehman Brothers]]{{ref|lehman|B}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Barclays plc]]
| Investment bank
| align="right"|${{nts|1300000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="barclays">{{citenews|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7626624.stm|author=BBC,[[et al.]]|title=Judge approve 1.3 billion deal|publisher=BBC |date=2008-09-17}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|18}} - ''Presumed''
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[HBOS]]
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Lloyds TSB]]
| Diversified financial services
| align="right"|${{nts|21850000000}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/09/18/business/EU-Britain-HBOS.php |title=Lloyds TSB confirms deal to take over HBOS PLC |author=AP |publisher=International Herald Tribune |date=2008-09-18}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|26}}
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Washington Mutual]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[JPMorgan Chase]]
| [[Savings and loan association]]
| align="right"|${{nts|1900000000}}
| align="center"|<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7637026.stm|title=Regulator sells WaMu to JPMorgan Chase|author=BBC,[[et al.]]|date=2008-9-26}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|26}}
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Lehman Brothers]]{{ref|nomura|C}}
| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Nomura Securities Co.|Nomura Holdings]]
| Investment bank
| align="right"|${{nts|2}}
| align="center"|<ref name="nomura">{{cite news |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/business/view/nomura-pays-only-2-for-lehman-brothers-european-unit|title=Nomura pays only $2 for Lehman Brothers European unit|author=KyodoNews|publisher=JapanToday|date=2008-9-26}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|28}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bradford & Bingley]]{{ref|BradfordBingley|D}}
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Her Majesty's Government]] (Mortgage Assets)<br />{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Banco Santander SA]] (Savings Liabilities)
| Diversified financial services
| align="right"|£{{nts|21100000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601102&sid=aTBJa4IvamJc&refer=uk|title=Banco Santander SA buys the banking assets of Bradford & Bingley|publisher=Bloomberg|date=2008-9-29}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|28}}
| {{flagicon|Belgium}} {{flagicon|Netherlands}} {{flagicon|Luxembourg}} [[Fortis (finance)|Fortis]]
| {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Government of the Netherlands]] (Dutch assets)<br />{{flagicon|France}} [[BNP Paribas]] (Belgian and Luxembourg assets)
| Diversified financial services
| align="right"|€{{nts|11,200,000,000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="fortis">{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/fortis-gets-euro11bn-lifeline-from-three-governments-946218.html|title=Fortis gets €11bn lifeline from three governments|last=Clark|first=Nick|publisher=The Independent|date=[[2008-09-30]]||accessdate=2008-09-30}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|29}} - ''Abandoned''
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Wachovia]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Citigroup]]{{ref|Wachovia|E}}
| Retail and investment banking
| align="right"|${{nts|15000000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="wachovia">{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/2008/09/29/news/companies/wachovia_citigroup/index.htm|title=Citigroup buys Wachovia bank assets for $2.2B|last=Ellis|first=David|publisher=CNN|date=[[2008-09-29]]||accessdate=2008-09-29}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|30}}
| {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Dexia]]
| {{flagicon|Belgium}} {{flagicon|France}} {{flagicon|Luxembourg}} The Belgian, French and Luxembourg governments
| Public finance and retail
|
| align="center"| <ref name="dexia">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7643638.stm|title=Second Belgian bank gets bail-out|publisher=BBC News|date=[[2008-09-30]]||accessdate=2008-09-30}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|10|3}}
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Wachovia]]
| {{flagicon|United States}} [[Wells Fargo]]{{ref|Wells Fargo|F}}
| Retail and investment banking
| align="right"|${{nts|15000000000}}
| align="center"|<ref name="wells fargo">{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=a4UquBXzRO48&refer=home|title=Wells Fargo merger with Wachovia|author=David Mildenberg,Josh Fineman|publisher=Bloomberg|date=2008-10-3}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|10|7}}
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Landsbanki]]
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority]]
| Commercial Bank
|
| align="center"|<ref>[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&NewsID=331 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (IFSA) Proceeds to take Control of Landsbanki to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (07.10.2008)]</ref><ref>[http://www.landsbanki.is/english/aboutlandsbanki/pressreleases/?GroupID=720&NewsID=13284&y=0&p=1 Landsbanki Íslands, ''Press release: Landsbanki's Operations Continued Under Unchanged Management'' (October 07, 2008)]</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|10|8}}
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Glitnir (bank)|Glitnir]]
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority]]
| Commercial bank
|
| align="center"|<ref>[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&NewsID=337 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Glitnir to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (08.10.2008)]</ref><ref>[http://www.glitnir.is/english/about-glitnir/news/detail/item15927/Glitnir's_Operations_Continued_–_Larus_Welding_to_continue_as_CEO/ Glitnir Bank, ''News: Glitnir's Operations Continued – Lárus Welding to continue as CEO'' (08.10.2008)]</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|10|9}}
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Kaupthing Bank]]
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority]]
| Commercial bank
|
| align="center"| <ref>[http://www.fme.is/?PageID=581&NewsID=340 The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, ''News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Kaupþing to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland'' (09.10.2008)]</ref><ref>[http://www.kaupthing.com/pages/164?path=K/133944/PR/200810/1258139.xml Kaupthing Bank, ''Press release: Kaupthing Bank turns to the Icelandic FSA'' (2008.10.09)]</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|10|9}}
| {{flagicon|Australia}} [[BankWest]] (subsidiary of [[HBOS]])
| {{flagicon|Australia}} [[ Commonwealth Bank of Australia]]
| Bank
| £1.2 billion
| align="center"| <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financetopics/financialcrisis/3160602/Australian-assets-sale-boosts-HBOS-funds.html Australian assets sale boosts HBOS funds]</ref>


|}
The relationship between Gnosticism and Christianity during the early first and the whole of the second century is vital in helping us to further understand the main doctrines of Gnosticism, due in part to the fact that, prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library, which is discussed below, much of what we know today about gnosticism has only been preserved in the teachings of early church fathers. The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse religiously, and due to there being no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre-existing belief systems as well as new religions was often embraced. Above all, the central idea of Gnosticism (a knowledge superior to and independent of faith) made it welcome to many who were half-converted from paganism to Christianity. According to gnostics, faith was for the multitude, knowledge for the few.


==Bank failures==
Irenaeus declares (Adversus Haereses, II, 27, 1. PG, VI, 802) it subjected everything to the caprice of the individual, and made any fixed rule of faith impossible. It destroyed, as Clement puts it (Stromata., II, 3, pp. 443-4) the efficacy of Baptism (that is, it set at naught faith, the gift conferred in that sacrament). The Gnostics professed to impart a knowledge "greater and deeper" (Iren. I, 31, 2) than the ordinary doctrine of Christians. This knowledge, to those who were capable of it, was the means of redemption; indeed, in most of the Gnostics systems it was the one and sufficient passport to perfect bliss. But it kept the resemblance of Christianity for in nearly all the Gnostic systems Christ occupied a central place. Without its Christian element, it could not have entered into such close conflict with the Church; without its mythological garb, it would have missed its popularity.


===United States of America===
The conception of Gnosticism here has in recent times come to be challenged (see [[# 'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category|below]]). Despite this, the understanding presented above remains the most common and is useful in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism.


; Bankrupt, filed for bankruptcy protection, or closed and received by the FDIC
===Dualism and monism===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being 'dualistic' in nature, meaning they had the view the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities. [[Hans Jonas]] writes: "The cardinal feature of gnostic thought is the radical [[dualism]] that governs the relation of [[God]] and [[world]], and correspondingly that of [[man]] and world."<ref>Hans Jonas ''The Gnostic Religion'', p. 42, Beacon Press, 1963 ISBN 0-8070-5799-1; 1st ed. 1958</ref> Within this definition, they run the gamut from the 'extreme' or 'radical dualist' systems of Manicheanism to the 'weak' or 'mitigated dualism' of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of [[monism]], expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.
|-
! Date
! Company
!class="unsortable"|Deposits and/or branches taken by
! Type of company bankrupt or closed
!class="unsortable"|References
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2007|2|2}}
| Metropolitan Savings Bank, [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]
| Allegheny Valley Bank; [[FDIC]]
|
| align="center"|<ref name="metrofdic">{{cite press release|title=FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of Metropolitan Savings Bank, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2007-02-02|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2007/pr07009.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2007|9|28}}
| [[NetBank]], [[Alpharetta, Georgia]]
| [[ING Direct]]; FDIC
| Retail and mortgage bank
| align="center"|<ref name="netbankfdic">{{citeweb|title=Failed Bank Information: NetBank, Alpharetta, GA, Closing Information|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2007-09-28|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/netbank.html}}</ref><ref name="ingbbcnetbank">{{citenews|title=ING wins from online bank failure |publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=2008-09-30|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7020802.stm}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2007|10|4}}
| Miami Valley Bank, [[Lakeview, Ohio]]
| Citizens Banking Corp; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="miamifdic">{{citeweb|title=Bank Closing Information for Miami Valley Bank, Lakeview, Ohio|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2007-10-04|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/miamivalley.html}}</ref><ref name="reutersmiami">{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/bankingfinancial-SP/idUSN0439931020071005 |title=Miami Valley becomes year's 3rd failed bank - FDIC|publisher=Reuters |date=2008-10-04}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|1|25}}
| Douglass National Bank, [[Kansas City, Missouri]]
| Liberty Bank and Trust Company; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="douglassfdic">{{cite press release|title=FDIC Approves the Assumption of all the Deposits of Douglass National Bank, Kansas City, Missouri|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-01-25|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08007.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|3|7}}
| Hume Bank, [[Hume, Missouri]]
| Security Bank; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="humefdic">{{cite press release|title=FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of Hume Bank, Hume, Missouri|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-03-07|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08021.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|5|9}}
| ANB Financial, [[Bentonville, Arkansas]]
| Pulaski Bank and Trust Company; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="anbfdic">{{cite press release|title=FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of ANB Financial, National Association, Bentonville, Arkansas|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-05-09|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08033.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|5|30}}
| First Integrity Bank, [[Staples, Minnesota]]
| First International Bank and Trust; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="firstfdic">{{cite press release|title=FDIC Approves the Assumption of All the Deposits of First Integrity Bank, National Association, Staples, Minnesota |publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-05-30|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08041.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|7|11}}
| [[IndyMac Bank]], [[Pasadena, California]]
| [[IndyMac Federal Bank]]; FDIC
| [[savings and loan association]]
|align="center"|<ref name="indyfdic">{{citeweb|title=FDIC Establishes IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB as Successor to IndyMac Bank, F.S.B., Pasadena, California|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-07-11|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/IndyMac.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|7|25}}
| First National Bank of Nevada, [[Reno, Nevada]]; First Heritage Bank, [[Newport Beach, California]]
| [[Mutual of Omaha]]; FDIC
|
|align="center"|<ref name="natbankofnevfdic">{{cite press release|title=Mutual of Omaha Bank Acquires All Deposits of First National Bank of Nevada and First Heritage Bank, N.A.|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-07-25|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08063.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|8|1}}
| First Priority Bank, [[Bradenton, Florida]]
| SunTrust Bank; FDIC
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|align="center"|<ref name="firstprbankfdic">{{cite press release|title=SunTrust Bank Acquires the Insured Deposits of First Priority Bank, Bradenton, Florida|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-08-01|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08065.html}}</ref>
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| The Columbian Bank and Trust Company, [[Topeka, Kansas]]
| Citizens Bank & Trust; FDIC
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|align="center"|<ref name="columbianbankfdic">{{citeweb|title=Failed Bank Information: NetBank, Alpharetta, GA, Closing Information|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-08-22|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/columbian.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|8|29}}
| Integrity Bank, [[Alpharetta, Georgia]]
| [[Regions Bank]]; FDIC
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|align="center"|<ref name="integrityfdic">{{citeweb|title=Failed Bank Information: Integrity Bank, Alpharetta, GA Closing Information|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-08-29|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/integrity.html}}</ref>
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| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|05}}
| Silver State Bank, [[Henderson, Nevada]]
| Nevada State Bank; National Bank of Arizona; FDIC
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|align="center"|<ref name="silverstatefdic">{{citeweb|title=Failed Bank Information: Silver State Bank, Henderson, NV Closing Information|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-09-05|url=http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/silverstate.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|15}}
| [[Lehman Brothers]]
| (''filed for bankruptcy protection'')
| [[Investment bank]]
|align="center"|<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.lehman.com/press/pdf_2008/091508_lbhi_chapter11_announce.pdf|title=Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. Announces It Intends to File Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Petition|publisher=Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc.|date=2008-09-15|accessdate=2008-09-15}}</ref>
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| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|19}}
| AmeriBank, [[Northfork, West Virginia]]
| Pioneer Community Bank; The Citizen's Saving Bank; FDIC
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| align="center"|<ref name="ameribankfdic">{{cite press release|title=Pioneer Community Bank, Inc., and the Citizens Savings Bank Acquire All Deposits of Ameribank, Inc., Northfork, West Virginia|publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-09-19|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08082.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|link=off|2008|9|25}}
| [[Washington Mutual]]
| [[JPMorgan Chase]]; FDIC
| [[savings and loan association]]
| align="center"|<ref name="wamufdic">{{cite press release|title=JPMorgan Chase Acquires Banking Operations of Washington Mutual |publisher =[[FDIC]]|date=2008-09-19|url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/press/2008/pr08085.html}}</ref>
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===United Kingdom and Iceland===
* '''Radical Dualism''' - or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from [[Zoroastrianism]], in which the eternal spirit [[Ahura Mazda]] is opposed by his antithesis, [[Angra Mainyu]]; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant.<br />The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, the god of darkness who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.<br />Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically to be found in Iranian sects; for instance, see '[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]') commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped inside it, or literally to keep them 'in the dark', or ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction.
* '''Mitigated Dualism''' - where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.
* '''Qualified Monism''' - where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or semi-divine. Elements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest to some that its understanding of the universe may have been monistic rather than a dualistic one: 'Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism' ([[Elaine Pagels]], ''The Gnostic Gospel'', 1978); 'a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic' (William Schoedel, 'Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth' in ''The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, Vol.1: The School of Valentinus'', edited by Bentley Layton, E.J.Brill, Leiden, 1980). In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his honest ignorance of the superior spiritual world above him. As such, Valentinians already have more cause to treat physical reality with less contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic.<br />Perhaps for this reason Valentinus appears to conceive of materiality, rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an ''error of perception''. Thus it follows that the Valentinian conception of the universe may be of a fundamentally monistic nature, in which all things are aspects of the divine; our ordinary view which is limited to the material realm is owing to our errors of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the demiurge's act of creation.


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===Moral and ritual practice===
The question of Gnostic morality can only be resolved by reading the claims of their contemporaries. Numerous Christian writers accused some Gnostic teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, while simultaneously freely indulging their physical appetites; however there is reason to question the accuracy of these claims.


{| class="wikitable sortable"
Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral behaviour as being generally [[asceticism|ascetic]] in basis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary practice.<ref>Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press - Introduction to "Against Heresies" by St. Irenaeus</ref> Many monks would deprive themselves of food, water, or necessary needs for living. This presented a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic movements: this mode of behavior was one which they themselves favoured and supported, so the Church Fathers, it seemed, would be required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. In order to avoid this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, excessive) allegations of [[libertinism]], or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature. [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]] provides an example when he writes of the 'Archontics' 'Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride themselves with a sort of [[abstinence]], under the disguise of monks' (''[[Panarion]]'', 40.1.4).
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In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour. Ptolemy's ''Epistle to Flora'' lays out a project of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral inclination of the individual:
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{{Quotation|External physical fasting is observed even among our followers, for it can be of some benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with reason (''[[logos]]''), whenever it is done neither by way of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor because of the day, as if it had been specially appointed for that purpose.|[[Ptolemy (gnostic)|Ptolemy]]|Letter to Flora}}
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This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best administered and prescribed by the central authority of the church, as transmitted through the apostles. Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation.
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Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the works of [[Irenaeus]]. According to this writer, [[Simon Magus]] (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism) founded the school of moral freedom ('[[amorality|amoralism]]'). Irenaeus reports that Simon's argument was that those who put their trust in him and his consort Helen need trouble themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free 'to do what they wish', as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace and not by their 'righteous works' (adapted from ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'', I.23.3).
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Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to be a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the [[Testimony of Truth]] that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to asceticism can likewise be ruled out.
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Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they are lax in their dietary habits (eating food that has been 'offered to idols'), sexually promiscuous ('immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh') and guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with them as adopted 'sisters'. In the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as 'brother' and 'sister': intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes.
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Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic [[sacrament]] in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired [[syzygy|syzygies]] that constitute the Valentinian [[Pleroma]]. Though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the orthodox church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.
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Of the [[Carpocratians]] Irenaeus makes much the same report: they 'are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man' (''Adversus Haereses'', I.25.4). Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he has received through his adherence to a system of ''gnosis''; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture.
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On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behavior tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiological accusation of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take the 'ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to human endeavour and promises a reward for those who make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent' (Kurt Rudolph, ''Gnosis:The Nature and History of Gnosticism'', 262).
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==Major Gnostic movements and their texts==
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As noted [[# History|above]], schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as being a member of two broad categories. These are the 'Eastern'/'Persian' school, and a 'Syrian-Egyptic' school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian [[Zoroastrians]]. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements which seem to include elements of both categories, namely: the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians which are included in their own section.
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===Persian Gnosticism===
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The Persian Schools are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from [[Christianity]] or [[Judaism]].
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* ''[[Mandaeanism]]'' is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern [[Iraq]] and the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]]. The name of the group derives from the term: Mandā d-Heyyi which roughly means "Knowledge of Life." Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually would come to be a key figure in the religion. As part of the core of their beliefs is an emphasis placed on baptism. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity, Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the [[Ginza Rba|Genzā Rabbā]] and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd century CE. There is also the [[Qolusta|Qolastā]], or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia).
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* ''[[Manichaeism]]'' which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now mostly extinct was founded by the Prophet Mani (210-276 CE). Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeins was believed lost, the discovery of an original series of documents have helped to shed new light on the subject. Now housed in [[Cologne]] [[Germany]], the [[Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis]] contains mainly biographical information on the prophet and details on his claims and teachings. Despite connections with [[Jesus]] [[Christ]], it is not believed that the Manichaeins in any way practiced a religion with identifiable overlap with any of the various Christian sects.
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===Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism===
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The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from [[platonism|Platonist]] influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. As a result, there is a tendency in these schools to view evil in terms of matter which is markedly inferior to goodness, evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms 'evil' and 'good' as being ''relative'' descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between such realities and confused in its orientation, with 'evil' indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an ''inherent'' negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements included source material related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite different from the so-called [[Orthodox]] or [[Roman Catholic]] forms).

====Syrian-Egyptic scripture====
Most of the literature from this category is known/confirmed to us in the modern age through the Library discovered at [[Nag Hammadi]].
* '''Sethian''' works are named after the third son of Adam and Eve, believed to be a possessor and disseminator of gnosis. These typically include:
** ''The [[Apocryphon of John]]''
** ''The [[Apocalypse of Adam]]''
** ''[[The Reality of the Rulers]], Also known as The hypostasis of the Archons''
** ''[[The Thunder Perfect Mind|The Thunder-Perfect Mind]]''
** ''[[Trimorphic Protennoia|The Three-fold First Thought]]'' ''(Trimorphic Protennoia)''
** ''The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit'' (also known as the ''[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians|(Coptic) Gospel of the Egyptians]]'')
** ''[[Zostrianos]]''
** ''[[Allogenes]]''
** ''The [[Three Steles of Seth]]''

* '''Thomasine''' works are so-named after the School of St. [[Thomas the Apostle]]. See [[Thomasine Church (Gnostic)]]. The texts commonly attributed to this school are:
** ''[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]'', or, the ''[[Hymn of the Pearl|Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians]]''
** ''The [[Gospel of Thomas]]''
** ''[[Book of Thomas the Contender|The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect]]''

* '''Valentinian''' works are named in reference to the Bishop and teacher [[Valentinius]], also spelled Valentinus. [[Circa|ca.]] 153 AD/CE, Valentinius developed a complex Cosmology outside of the Sethian tradition. At one point he was close to being appointed the [[Bishop of Rome]] of what is now the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk:
** ''The Divine Word Present in the Infant'' (Fragment A) *
** ''On the Three Natures'' (Fragment B) *
** ''Adam's Faculty of Speech'' (Fragment C) *
** ''To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System'' (Fragment D) *
** ''Annihilation of the Realm of Death'' (Fragment F) *
** ''On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom'' (Fragment G) *
** ''Epistle on Attachments'' (Fragment H) *
** ''Summer Harvest''*
** ''[[Gospel of Truth|The Gospel of Truth]]''*
** ''Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth''
** ''[[The Prayer of the Apostle Paul]]''
** ''Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora''
** ''Treatise on Resurrection'' (''Epistle to Rheginus'')
** ''[[Gospel of Philip]]''

* '''Basilidian''' works are named for the founder of their school, [[Basilides]] (132&ndash;? CE/AD). These works are mainly known to us through the criticisms of one of his opponents, [[Irenaeus]] in his work ''[[Adversus Haereses]]''. The other pieces are known through the work of [[Clement of Alexandria]]:
** The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A)
** The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B)
** Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C)
** The State of Virtue (Fragment D)
** The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E)
** Reincarnation (Fragment F)
** Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G)
** Forgivable Sins (Fragment H)

* The [[Gospel of Judas]] is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. [[National Geographic]] has published an English translation of it, bringing it into mainstream awareness. It portrays [[Judas Iscariot]] as the most enlightened disciple, who acted at Jesus' request when he handed Jesus over to the authorities. Its reference to [[Barbelo]] and inclusion of material similar to the Apocryphon of John and other such texts, connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian Gnosticism.

===Later Gnosticism and Gnostic-influenced groups===
* '''Other schools and related movements'''; these are presented in chronological order:[[Image:Simple crossed circle.svg|right|frame|The [[Sun cross|circular, harmonic cross]] was an [[emblem]] used most notably by the [[Cathars]], a [[medieval]] group that related to Gnosticism]]
** ''[[Simon Magus]]'' and ''[[Marcion of Sinope]]'' both had Gnostic tendencies, but such familiar ideas that they presented were as-yet unformed; they might thus be described as pseudo- or proto-Gnostics. Both developed a sizeable following. Simon Magus' pupil ''Menander of Antioch'' could potentially be included within this grouping. Marcion is popularly labelled a gnostic, however most scholars do not consider him a gnostic at all, for example, the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] article on [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/MAL_MAR/MARCION.html Marcion] clearly states: "In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his church — to which he was first driven by opposition — amounts to a reformation of [[Christendom]] through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A [[dualist]] he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic - Depending of course on one's definition of 'Gnostic'."
** ''[[Cerinthus]]'' (''c'' 100), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus.<ref name = "gonzález">González, Justo L.(1970). ''A History of Christian Thought, Vol. I''. Abingdon. pp. 132-3</ref>
** The ''[[Ophites]]'', so-named because they worshipped the serpent of [[Genesis]] as the bestower of knowledge.
** The ''[[Cainites]]'', as the term implies, worshipped [[Cain]], as well as [[Esau]], [[Korah]], and the [[Sodom]]ites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group; however, it is surmisable that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see [[libertinism]]). The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain. According to Biblical text, which is our only source of knowledge about the man Cain, all descendants of Cain perished in [[Noah's Flood]], as only Noah's family survived, deriving from the line of Seth.
** The ''[[Carpocrates|Carpocratians]]''
** The ''[[Borborites]]''
** The ''[[Bogomils]]''
** The ''[[Paulicianism|Paulicans]]''
** The ''[[Cathar]]s'' (''Cathari'', ''Albigenses'' or ''Albigensians'') are typically seen as being imitative of Gnosticism; whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. Though the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, [[Satan]]ic, creator god), they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (''gnosis'') as an effective salvific force. For the relationship between these medieval heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see [[#The development of the Persian school|historical discussion above]].

===Kabbalah===

Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of [[Kabbalah]]. The Kabbalists took many core Gnostic ideas and used them to dramatically reinterpret earlier Jewish sources according to this new foreign influence. See Gershom Scholem's ''Origins of the Kabbalah'' for further discussion. The Kabbalists originated in [[Provence]] which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. It is thus believed that Cathar Gnostics persuaded Jews to Gnostic ideas, leading to the development of Kabbalah. Another influence on Kabbalah was probably that of the Muslim [[Ismaili]]s. (By contrast, however, followers of Kabbalah date its origins as early as the Garden of Eden.)

Kabbalah, however, does not employ the terminology or labels of gentile Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible). Nevertheless, during the time periods when Gnosticism was drawing large numbers of followers from various religions, creating Gnostic versions of those religions, many Jews also developed a mystical version of Judaism remarkably similar to Gnostic beliefs.

While Kabbalah shares several themes with Gnosticism, such as a multiplicity of heavenly levels and archetypes and the importance of mystical knowledge of these, it does not reflect the distinctive Gnostic belief that the material world and the Hebrew Bible are the work of an inferior and malevolent deity. Rather than describing Kabbalah as a form of Gnosticism, it would be more accurate to describe both Kabbalah and Gnosticism as members of a family of Neoplatonic/Neopythagorean Oriental mystical traditions, which would also include [[Sufism]].

==Important terms and concepts==
{{main|List of gnostic terms}}

===Aeons===
{{main|Aeon}}
In many Gnostic systems, the various [[emanationism|emanations]] of the [[God]], who is also known by such names as [[the One]], the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|Monad]], Aion teleos (The Perfect Aeon), [[Bythos]] (Depth or profundity, Greek Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, Greek προαρχη), E Arkhe (The Beginning, Greek ἡ ἀρχή), are called ''aeons''. This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoia (Thought), Charis (Grace), or Sige (Greek Σιγη, Silence). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen (Power), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon Akhana (Truth, Love).

The aeons often came in male/female pairs called ''syzygies'', and were numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were [[Jesus]] and [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]. The aeons constitute the ''[[pleroma]]'', the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.

When an æon named ''Sophia'' emanated without her partner aeon, the result was the ''[[Demiurge]]'', or half-creator (Occasionally referred to as ''Ialdaboth'' in Gnostic texts), a creature that should never have come into existence. This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, ''[[Christ]]'' and ''the [[Holy Spirit]]'' to save man from the Demiurge. Christ then took the form of the man, ''Jesus'', in order to be able to teach man how to achieve [[gnosis]]; that is, return to the pleroma.

These systems, however, are only a sample of the various interpretations that exist. The roles of familiar beings such as Jesus Christ, Sophia, and the Demiurge usually share the same general themes between systems but may have somewhat different functions or identities ascribed to them.

===Archon===
{{main|Archon}}
In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term ''Archon'' to refer to several servants of the ''[[Demiurge]]'', the "[[creator god]]" that stood between spiritual humanity and a transcendent God that could only be reached through gnosis. In this context they may be seen as having the roles of the angels and demons of the [[Old Testament]].

The [[Orphism (religion)|Orphics]] accepted the existence of seven archons: [[Demiurge|Iadabaoth]] or Ialdabaoth (who created the six others), [[Iao]], [[Sabaoth]], Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Horaios ([[Origen]], [[Contra Celsum]], VI.31). Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion, just like [[Mithraic]] Kronos ([[Chronos]]) and [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] [[Narasimha]], a form of [[Vishnu]].

===Abraxas/Abrasax===
{{main|Abraxas}}
[[Image:Abraxas, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|right|150px|Engraving from an Abraxas stone.]]
The Egyptian Gnostic [[Basilideans]] referred to a figure called ''Abraxas'' who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings ([[Irenaeus]], ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'', I.24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of the term 'Archon', which may simply mean 'ruler' in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear.

The word [[Abraxas]] was engraved on certain [[ancient history|antique]] stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may have been used as [[amulets]] or charms by Gnostic sects. In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the name of a [[god (male deity)|god]] who incorporated both [[Good and evil|Good]] and [[Evil]] (God and [[Demiurge]]) in one entity, and therefore representing the [[monotheistic God]], singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not [[eutheism|omni-benevolent]] (See Hesse's Demian, and Jung's Seven Sermons to the Dead). Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been claimed to be both an [[Egypt]]ian god and a [[demon]], sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of [[Satan]]/[[Lucifer]]. The word [[abracadabra]] may be related to Abraxas.

The above information relates to interpretations of ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters which are not always clear.

Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library, such as the [[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians]], refer to Abrasax as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abrasax, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.

Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also appear in the [[Greek Magical Papyri]]. There are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basiledes' teaching, in the larger magical traditions of the Graeco-Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic texts such as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical and esoteric writings.

The Swiss Psychologist [[Carl Jung]] wrote a short Gnostic treatise in 1916 called The Seven Sermons to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Devil, that combines all opposites into one Being.

===Demiurge===
{{main|Demiurge}}
[[Image:Lion-faced deity.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in [[Bernard de Montfaucon]]'s ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' may be a depiction of the Demiurge.]]
The term ''Demiurge'' refers to an entity (usually seen as evil) responsible for the creation of the [[physical universe]] and the physical aspect of [[Human nature|humanity]].

The term occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably [[Platonism]]. While always suggestive of a [[creator god]], the moral judgements regarding the demiurge vary wildly, from a benign [[grand architect]] to an evil subvertor of God's will.

Like [[Plato]], Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable "alien God" and the demiurgic "creator" of the material. However, in contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme God: his act of creation either in unconscious imitation of the divine model, and thus fundamentally flawed, or else formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine ''in'' materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the [[problem of evil]]. In the [[Apocryphon of John]] (several versions of which are found in the [[Nag Hammadi library]]), the Demiurge has the name "[[Yaltabaoth]]", and proclaims himself as God:

:''"Now the [[archon]] who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is [[Saklas]], and the third is [[Samael]]. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come."''

[[Gnostic]] myth recounts that [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]] (Greek, literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the divine [[Pleroma]] or "Fullness", desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place.

The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See [[Sethian|Sethian Gnosticism]].)

"Samael" may equate to the [[Judaism|Judaic]] [[Death (personification)# Death (angels) in religion|Angel of Death]], and corresponds to the Christian [[demon]] of [[Samael|that name]], as well as [[Satan]]. Literally, it can mean "Blind God" or "God of the Blind" in [[Aramaic]] ([[Syriac]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel''). Another alternative title for Yaldabaoth, "Saklas", is Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac ''sækla'' "the foolish one").

Some Gnostic philosophers identify the Demiurge with [[Yahweh]], the [[God]] of the [[Old Testament]], in opposition and contrast to the God of the [[New Testament]]. Still others equated the being with [[Satan]]. [[Catharism]] apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism.

===Gnosis===
{{main|Gnosis}}
The word 'Gnosticism' is a modern construction, though based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word meaning 'knowledge', ''gnosis'' (γνῶσις). However, ''gnosis'' itself refers to a very specialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in [[Plato]]nist [[philosophy]].

Unlike modern [[English language|English]], ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several different forms of knowing. These different forms may be described in English as being [[propositional knowledge]], indicative of knowledge acquired ''indirectly'' through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know ''of'' George Bush" or "I know Berlin ''is in'' Germany"), and [[empirical]] knowledge acquired by ''direct participation'' or ''acquaintance'' (such as "I know George Bush personally" or "I know Berlin, having visited").

''Gnosis'' (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to be 'Gnostic' should be understood as being reliant not on [[knowledge]] in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to [[Mysticism|mystical]] or esoteric experiences of direct participation with the divine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of [[salvation]] is this 'knowledge of' ('acquaintance with') the divine. This is commonly identified with a process of inward 'knowing' or self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by [[Plotinus]] (''[[Circa|ca]].'' 205&ndash;270 AD). However, as may be seen, the term 'gnostic' also had precedent usage in several ancient [[philosophy|philosophical]] traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups.

===Monad (apophatic theology)===
{{main|Monad (Gnosticism)}}
In many [[Gnostic]] systems (and heresiologies), [[God]] is known as the ''Monad'', [[the One]], [[Absolute (philosophy)|The Absolute]], ''Aion teleos'' (The Perfect [[Æon]]), ''Bythos'' (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), ''Proarkhe'' (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and ''E Arkhe'' (The Beginning, η αρχη). God is the high source of the [[pleroma]], the region of light. The various emanations of God are called [[æon]]s.

Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those inspired by [[Monoimus]], the ''Monad'' was the highest [[God]] which created lesser [[deity|gods]], or elements (similar to æons).

According to [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], this view was inspired by the [[Pythagoreans]], who called the first thing that came into existence the ''Monad'', which begat the [[dyad]], which begat the [[number]]s, which begat the [[Point (geometry)|point]], begetting [[line]]s, etc. This was also clarified in the writings of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Plotinus]]. This teaching being largely [[Pythagoreanism|Neopythagorean]] via [[Numenius of Apamea|Numenius]] as well.

This Monad is the [[supernatural|spiritual]] source of everything which [[emanationism|emanates]] the [[pleroma]], and could be contrasted to the dark [[Demiurge]] (Yaldabaoth) that controls [[matter]].

The [[Sethian]] cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon ('Secret book') of John describes an unknown [[God]], very similar to the [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of heaven and earth. In describing the nature of a creator god associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to their superlative degrees: he is [[omniscient]], [[omnipotent]] and truly [[benevolent]]. The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through [[negative theology]]: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, 'he' is seen as being [[hermaphroditic]], a potent symbol for being, as it were, 'all-containing'. In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god.

An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found throughout gnosticism, Vendantic hinduism, and Platonic and Aristotelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic sources.

===Pleroma===
{{main|Pleroma}}
''Pleroma'' (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. The term means ''fullness'', and is used in Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally, and in [[Colossians]] 2.9.

Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil [[archon]]s, one of whom is the demiurge, the deity of the [[Old Testament]] who holds the human spirit captive.

The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as [[aeon]]s (eternal beings) and sometimes [[archon]]s. [[Jesus]] is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic [[cosmology]].

Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|Paul was actually a gnostic]], such as [[Elaine Pagels]] of [[Princeton University]], view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the gnostic sense.

===Sophia===
{{main|Sophia (wisdom)}}
In Gnostic tradition, the term ''Sophia'' (Σoφíα, [[Greek language|Greek]] for "wisdom") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God.

In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the [[demiurge]], who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] equivalent of ''Achamoth'' (this is a feature of [[Ptolemy (gnostic)|Ptolemy]]'s version of the [[Valentinius|Valentinian]] gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90<ref> [http://www.sullivan-county.com/nf0/nov_2000/jew_gnostic.htm Gnosticism, Judaism and Egyptian Christianity]</ref> .

Almost all gnostic systems of the [[Gnosticism#Major gnostic schools and their texts|Syrian]] or [[Gnosticism# Major gnostic schools and their texts|Egyptian]] type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable [[God]], referred to as the Parent or [[Bythos]], as the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|Monad]] by [[Monoimus]], or the first [[Aeon]] by still other traditions. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously [[emanationism|emanated]] further [[Aeon]]s, pairs of progressively 'lesser' beings in sequence. The lowest of these pairs were Sophia and [[Christ]]. The Aeons together made up the Pleroma, or fullness, of God, and thus should not be seen as distinct from the divine, but symbolic abstractions of the divine nature.

==History==
{{main|History of Gnosticism}}

===The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school===
[[Bentley Layton]] has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to ''The Gnostic Scriptures'' (SCM Press, London, 1987). In this model, 'Classical Gnosticism' and 'The School of Thomas' antedated and influenced the development of [[Valentinus]], who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]], whom Layton called 'the great [Gnostic] reformer' and 'the focal point' of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher [[Basilides]], and may have been influenced by him.

[[Valentinianism]] flourished throughout the early centuries of the common era: while Valentinus himself lived from ''[[Circa|ca]]''. 100&ndash;180 AD/CE, a list of sectarians or heretics, composed in 388 AD/CE, against whom Emperor Constantine intended legislation includes Valentinus (and, presumably, his inheritors). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of 'reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 94). It is known that Valentinus' students, in further evidence of their intellectual activity, elaborated upon the teachings and materials they received from him (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through [[Ptolemy (gnostic)|Ptolemy]].

Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically 'dense' form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers: Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in [[Egypt]] until the 4th century.

Simone Petrement, in ''A Separate God'', in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.)

[[Image:Manicheans.jpg|thumb|250px|Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]]. Manuscript from Khocho, [[Tarim Basin]].]]

===The development of the Persian school===
An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph in his book ''Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism'' (Koehler and Amelang, [[Leipzig]], 1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. The decline of [[Manicheism]] that occurred in Persia in the 5th century AD/CE was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. In the west, the teachings of the school moved into [[Syria]], [[Arabia|Northern Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Africa|North Africa]] (where [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] was a member of the school from 373-382); from Syria it progressed still farther, into [[Palestine]], [[Asia Minor]] and [[Armenia]]. There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and [[Dalmatia]] in the 4th century, and also in [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the [[Paulicians]], [[Bogomil]]s and [[Cathars|Cathari]] in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out as a heresy by the Catholic Church.

In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and [[Zoroastrianism]] had been broken by nascent [[Islam]]. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in [[Central Asia]], to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the [[Uyghur Empire]].

===Buddhism and Gnosticism===
Early 3rd century–4th century [[Christian]] writers such as [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]] write about a [[Scythianus]], who visited India around 50 CE from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". According to [[Cyril of Jerusalem]], Scythianus' pupil [[Terebinthus]] presented himself as a "Buddha" ("He called himself Buddas" {{Fact|date=June 2007}}). Terebinthus went to [[Palestine]] and [[Judea|Judaea]] ("becoming known and condemned"), and ultimately settled in [[Babylon]], where he transmitted his teachings to [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], thereby creating the foundation of [[Manichaeism]]:

{{quote|"But Terebinthus, his disciple in this wicked error, inherited his money and books and heresy, and came to Palestine, and becoming known and condemned in Judæa he resolved to pass into Persia: but lest he should be recognised there also by his name he changed it and called himself Buddas."|[[Cyril of Jerusalem]], [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310106.htm "Catechetical lecture 6"]}}

In the 3rd century, the Syrian writer and Christian [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] theologian [[Bar Daisan]] described his exchanges with the religious missions of holy men from India (Greek: Σαρμαναίοι, Sramanas), passing through [[Syria]] on their way to [[Elagabalus]] or another [[Severan dynasty]] [[Roman Emperor]]. His accounts were quoted by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (De abstin., iv, 17 {{Fact|date=June 2007}}) and [[Stobaeus]] (Eccles., iii, 56, 141).

Finally, from the 3rd century to the 12th century, some Gnostic religions such as Manichaeism, which combined Christian, Hebrew and Buddhist influences ([[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], the founder of the religion, resided for some time in [[Kushan]] lands), spread throughout the [[Old World]], to [[Gaul]] and [[Great Britain]] in the West, and to [[China]] in the East. Some leading Christian theologians such as [[Augustine of Hippo]] were Manichaeans before converting to orthodox Christianity.
Such exchanges, many more of which may have gone unrecorded, suggest that Buddhism may have had some influence on early [[Christianity]]: "Scholars have often considered the possibility that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity. They have drawn attention to many parallels concerning the births, lives, doctrines, and deaths of the Buddha and Jesus" (Bentley, "Old World Encounters").

===Influence in East Asia===
Early missionaries, including [[Manicheans]], [[Zoroastrians]], and [[Nestorians]], traveled and proselytized along the [[Silk Road]] east to [[Chang'an]], the [[Tang Dynasty]] capital of China. The first introduction of Christianity, under the Chinese name ''Jĭngjiào'' (景教, literally "bright/luminous religion"), was from [[Nestorianism in China|Nestorianism]] or the [[Assyrian Church of the East]]. In 635, when Nestorian missionaries arrived in Chang'an, the Emperor assigned his famous Prime Minister Fang Xuanling (房玄齡) to hold a grand welcome ceremony. Chinese Nestorianism was popular in the late 8th century, but never became a widely-practice mainstream religion in China. In 845, [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang]] ordered the Great Persecution of Buddhism, which affected other foreign religions, weakened Nestorianism and practically destroyed Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism in China.

Chinese Nestorianism revived during the 13th-14th century [[Yuan Dynasty]], but was replaced by [[Roman Catholicism]] in 16th-17th centuries. Rudolph reported that despite the suppression, Manichean traditions are reputed to have survived until the 17th century (based on the reports of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] sailors).

=='Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category==
In 1966 in [[Messina]], [[Italy]], a conference was held concerning systems of ''gnosis''. Among its several aims were the need to establish a program to translate the recently-acquired Nag Hammadi library (see above) and the need to arrive at an agreement concerning an accurate definition of 'Gnosticism'. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent since the eighteenth century, to use the term 'gnostic' less as its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category for ''contemporary'' philosophical and religious movements. For example, in 1835, [[New Testament]] scholar [[Ferdinand Christian Baur]] constructed a developmental model of Gnosticism that culminates in the religious philosophy of [[Hegel]]; one might compare [[literary critic]] [[Harold Bloom]]'s recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contemporary [[United States|American]] religion, or [[Eric Voegelin]]'s analysis of [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] impulses through the interpretive lens of Gnosticism.

The 'cautious proposal' reached by the conference concerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies:

{{Quotation|In the concluding document of Messina the proposal was 'by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods' to designate 'a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ' as 'gnosticism', and to use 'gnosis' to define a conception of knowledge transcending the times which was described as 'knowledge of divine mysteries for an élite'.|Markschies|Gnosis: An Introduction, p. 13}}

In essence, it had been decided that 'Gnosticism' would become a historically-specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while 'gnosis' would be an universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained 'for a privileged élite.' However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term 'Gnosticism' was an entirely modern construction, while the new universal term 'gnosis' ''was'' a historical term: 'something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called "gnosis" ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 14-15). In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what exactly ''constituted'' knowledge; the unitary conception that the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.

These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism persist. It remains current convention to use 'Gnosticism' in a historical sense, and 'gnosis' universally. Leaving aside the issues with the latter noted above, the usage of 'Gnosticism' to designate a category of religions in the 3rd century has recently been questioned as well. Of note is the work of [[Michael Allen Williams]] in ''Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious Category'', in which the author examines the terms by which gnosticism as a category is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly-recovered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance to his thesis).

Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has been laid on perceptions of dualism, body-and-matter hatred, and anticosmism, without these suppositions being properly ''tested''. In essence, the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagonistic efforts of the heresiologists has been taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a ''categorical'' definition, even though the means now exist to verify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious nature of categorical 'Gnosticism', and he concludes that the term needs replacing in order to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises. Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term 'the Biblical demiurgical tradition' has not become widely used.

==Gnosticism in modern times==
{{main|Gnosticism in modern times}}

A number of 19th century thinkers such as [[William Blake]], [[Schopenhauer]],<ref>[[Schopenhauer]], ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol. II, Ch. XLVIII </ref> [[Albert Pike]], [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky|Madame Blavatsky]], studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like [[Herman Melville]] and [[W. B. Yeats]] were more tangentially influenced.<ref name="smith">Smith, Richard. "The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism" in The Nag Hammadi Library, 1990 ISBN 0-06-066935-7</ref> [[Jules Doinel]] "re-established" a Gnostic church in France in 1890 which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as ''Tau Synésius'' and Joanny Bricaud as ''Tau Jean II'' most notably), and which, although small, is still active today.<ref>Cf. [http://www.plerome.org l'Eglise du Plérôme]</ref>

Early 20th century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include [[Carl Jung]] (who supported Gnosticism), [[Eric Voegelin]] (who opposed it), [[Jorge Luis Borges]] (who included it in many of his short stories), and [[Aleister Crowley]], with figures such as [[Hermann Hesse]] being more moderatedly influenced. [[Rene Guenon]] founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more [[Traditionalist School|"Perennialist"]] position). Gnostic [[Thelema|Thelemite]] organizations, such as [[Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica]] and [[Ordo Templi Orientis]], trace themselves to Crowley's thought.

The discovery and translation of the [[Nag Hammadi library]] after 1945 had a huge impact on Gnosticism since World War II. Thinkers who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include [[Hans Jonas]], [[Philip K. Dick]] and [[Harold Bloom]], with [[Albert Camus]] and [[Allen Ginsberg]] being more moderately influenced.<Ref name="smith" /> A number of ecclesiastical bodies which think of themselves as Gnostic have been set up or re-founded since World War II as well, including the [[Society of Novus Spiritus]], [[Ecclesia Gnostica]], the [[Thomasine Church]], the [[Apostolic Johannite Church]], the [[Alexandrian Gnostic Church]], the ''North American College of Gnostic Bishops'', and the International Gnostic Movement of [[Samael Aun Weor]]. [[Celia Green]] has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy<ref name = "Green">Green, Celia (1981,2006). ''Advice to Clever Children''. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Ch.s XXXV-XXXVII</ref>
.

Also there are Gnostic Churches and Organisations based in the United Kingdom due to popularity of the Gnostic Scriptures since the [[Da Vinci Code]] by [[Dan Brown]].<ref>Cf. [http://www.freewebs.com/jamesthejust Gnostic Christian Society of Shakerley]</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[List of business failures]]
{{multicol}}
==Notes==
* [[Antinomianism]]
* {{note|aig|A}}Acquired a nearly 80% share in exchange for a {{US$}}85 billion loan, yet to be approved by acquiree's shareholders.<ref name="aigfedacquireeightyper"/>
* [[Apocrypha]]
* {{note|lehman|B}}Only trading assets, trading liabilities, and head offices were acquired.<ref name="barclays"/>
* [[Black Iron Prison]]
* {{note|nomura|C}}Only European and Middle Eastern equities and investment banking operations were acquired.<ref name="nomura"/>
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* {{note|BradfordBingley|D}}Grupo Santander only acquired the savings portion of Bradford & Bingley; the company's loan portfolio was nationalised by the UK government.<ref name="B&B takeover">{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/economicNews/idUSBINGLEY20080929 |title=HIGHLIGHTS-Britain nationalises Bradford & Bingley |publisher=Reuters |date=2008-09-29 |accessdate=2008-09-29}}</ref>
* [[Christian mysticism]]
* {{note|wachovia|E}}Only retail and investment banking subsidiaries will be acquired if the Citigroup deal took place.<ref name="wachovia"/>
* [[Christian theosophy]]
* {{note|wells fargo|F}}Well Fargo made a second agreement that cancelled out the Citigroup deal. Citigroup is taking legal action.<ref name="wells fargo"/>
* [[Esoteric Christianity]]
* {{note|ice|G}}The [[Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority]] has announced that it will not honour its commitment to British savers, and [[Her Majesty's Treasury]] has announced that the UK's Financial Compensation Scheme will payout for all Icesave customers in the UK, over and above the usual £50,000 limit
{{multicol-break}}
* {{note|H}}Per the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2008/uksi_20082644_en_1 The Heritable Bank plc Transfer of Certain Rights and Liabilities Order 2008]
* [[First Council of Nicaea]]
* {{note|I}}Per the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2008/uksi_20082674_en_1 The Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander Limited Transfer of Certain Rights and Liabilities Order 2008]
* [[Gospel]]
* [[Gnosiology]]
* [[Hermeticism]]
* [[Mandaeans]]
* [[Nag Hammadi library]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Samael Aun Weor]]
* [[Theodicy]]
{{multicol-end}}


==Footnotes==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


{{Economic Crisis}}
==References==
===Books===
====Primary sources====
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bentley Layton | last = Layton | first = Bentley | title = The Gnostic Scriptures | publisher = SCM Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-334-02022-0 | pages = 526 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = James M. Robinson | last = Robinson | first = James | title = The Nag Hammadi Library in English | publisher = | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 0-06-066934-9 | pages = 549 pages }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Plotinus]] | other = translated by A.H. Armstrong | title = The [[Enneads]] | publisher = [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]] | year = 1989 | id = }} (in 7 volumes), vol. 1: ISBN 0-674-99484-1
* The Gnostic Bible, Ed. Willis Barstone

====Secondary sources====
* {{cite book | last = Aland | first = Barbara | title = [[Festschrift]] für Hans Jonas | publisher = Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 3-525-58111-4 }}
* {{cite book | last= Anderson | first = Robert A. | title = Church of God? or the Temples of Satan - A Reference Book of Spiritual Understanding & Gnosis | publisher = TGS Publishers | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 0-9786249-6-3 }}
* {{cite book | last= Burstein | first = Dan | title = Secrets of Mary Magdalene | publisher = CDS Books | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 1-59315-205-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first = Timothy | coauthors = Gandy, Peter | title = The Hermetica: The Lost Wisdom of the Pharaohs | publisher = Tarcher | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-87477-950-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first = Timothy | coauthors = Gandy, Peter | title = Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians | publisher = Three Rivers Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-00-710071-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Green | first = Henry | title = Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism | publisher = Scholars P.,U.S. | year = 1985 | id = ISBN 0-89130-843-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse | publisher = Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg | year = 1967 | id = | pages = 352 pages }}, translated as {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Gnosis: Character and Testimony | publisher = Brill, Leiden | year = 1971 | id = }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephan A. Hoeller | last = Hoeller | first = Stephan A. | title = Gnosticism - New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing | publisher = | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-8356-0816-6 | pages = 257 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Jones | first = Peter | title = The Gnostic Empire Strikes Back: An Old Heresy for the New Age | publisher = Presbyterian & Reformed | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-87552-285-8 | pages = 112 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Hans Jonas | last = Jonas | first = Hans | title = Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1-2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie | publisher = | year = | id = ISBN 3-525-53841-3 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Charles William King | last = King | first = Charles William | title = The Gnostics and Their Remains | year = 1887 | url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/gno/gar/ }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Karen Leigh King| last = King | first = Karen L. | title = What is Gnosticism? | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-674-01071-X | pages = 343 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Klimkeit | first = Hans-Joachim | title = Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia | publisher = Harper, San Francisco | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-06-064586-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Layton | first = Bentley | editor = edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough | chapter = Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism | title = The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks | publisher = Fortress Press, Minneapolis | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-8006-2585-4 }}
* {{cite book | author = Layton, Bentley (ed.) | title = The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism | publisher = E.J. Brill | year = 1981 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Ki Longfellow | last = Longfellow | first = Ki | title = The Secret Magdalene | publisher = | id = ISBN 0-9759255-3-9 | pages = 458 pages | publisher = Random House, New York | year = 2007 | id - ISBN 978-0-307-34666-7 (0-307-34666-8) }}
* {{cite book | last = Markschies | first = Christoph | other = trans. John Bowden | title = Gnosis: An Introduction | publisher = T & T Clark | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-567-08945-2 | pages = 145 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Mins | first = Denis | title = Irenaeus | publisher = Geoffrey Chapman | year = 1994 | id = }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Gnostic Gospels | publisher = | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0-679-72453-2 | pages = 182 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis | publisher = | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 1-55540-334-4 | pages = 128 pages }}
* Petrement, Simone (1990), ''A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim'', Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-066421-5
* {{cite book | last = Puma | first = Jeremy | title = Running Towards the Bomb: Gnosticism and the End of Civilisation | publisher = Geosynchronous Lamps | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-4116-4523-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rudolph | first = Kurt | title = Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-06-067018-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = [[Benjamin Walker|Walker]] | first = [[Benjamin Walker|Benjamin]] | title = Gnosticism: Its History and Influence | publisher = Harper Collins | year = 1990 | id = ISBN 1-85274-057-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Wapnick | first = Kenneth | title = Love Does Not Condemn: The World, the Flesh, and the Devil According to Platonism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and A Course in Miracles | publisher = Foundation for A Course in Miracles | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0-933291-07-8 | pages = 614 pages}}
* Wilberg, Peter (2003) ''From New Age to New Gnosis'' - ''On'' ''the Contemporary Significance of a New Gnostic Spirituality'', ISBN 1-904519-07-5
* {{cite book | last = Williams | first = Michael | title = Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-691-01127-3 }}

===Videos===
* ''The Naked Truth: Exposing the Deceptions About the Origins of Modern Religions'' (1995).

==External links==
<!-- All external links are given in alphabetical order by page title or, where available, by author. If you wish to add to the lists, please maintain this layout. Also see the subpages, e.g. [[Gnosticism in modern times]] which have their own link lists, in order to place links in the appropriate page. -->
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/gnostic.htm Religious Tolerance] - A survey of Gnosticism
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/gnostics.html Early Christian Writings] - primary texts
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library.html The Gnostic Society Library]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/gnostic.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.kheper.net/topics/Gnosticism/intro.htm Introduction to Gnosticism]
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=280&letter=G&search=gnosticism Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.theandros.com/pregnostic.html Proto-Gnostic elements in the Gospel according to John]
*[http://www9.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/gospel/index.html Gnostic version of the Bible and more on Gnostics]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06592a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism]
*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Gnosticism|Gnosticism}}

{{belief systems}}

[[Category:Gnosticism|*]]
[[Category:New Testament apocrypha]]


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Revision as of 20:39, 10 October 2008


This is a list of financial institutions that have been affected by the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. The list includes banks (including commercial banks and investment banks), building societies and insurance companies that have either been:

  • taken over or merged with another financial institution;
  • nationalised by a government or central bank; or
  • declared insolvent or liquidated.

In the United States, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) may assume deposits of banks or allow other banks to assume them. The largest banks to be acquired have been the presumed Merrill Lynch acquisition by Bank of America, the Bear Stearns acquisition by JPMorgan Chase, and the Countrywide Financial acquisition also by Bank of America. IndyMac Bank was also a large bank that was changed into a bridge bank by the FDIC, after its failure, until the funds can be disposed of. In addition, the investment bank Lehman Brothers has filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.

In the United Kingdom, Her Majesty's Treasury has the power to acquire failing banks under the Banking (Special Provisions) Act 2008. Using powers granted by this Act, Her Majesty's Treasury acquired the shareholdings of both Northern Rock and the Bradford & Bingley; and transferred the savings accounts of failed Icelandic banks to ING Direct. Anti-terrorism legilsation has been used to sieze assets of the Icelandic banks, the Government of Iceland and the Icelandic central bank in the UK.

Acquisitions

Date acquisition is announced Acquired company Acquirer Type of company acquired ~Value (USD) References
February 22, 2008 United Kingdom Northern Rock United Kingdom Her Majesty's Government retail and mortgage bank [1]
April 1, 2008 United States Bear Stearns United States JPMorgan Chase Investment bank $2.2×10^9 [2]
June 7, 2008 United Kingdom Catholic Building Society United Kingdom Chelsea Building Society Building Society [3]
July 1, 2008 United States Countrywide Financial United States Bank of America Subprime mortgage lender $4×10^9 [4]
July 14, 2008 United Kingdom Alliance & Leicester Spain Banco Santander SA retail and mortgage bank
August 26, 2008 Denmark Roskilde Bank Denmark Danmarks Nationalbank (Danish Central Bank) Retail bank $896,800,000 (kr4,500,000,000) [5]
September 8, 2008 United Kingdom Derbyshire Building Society United Kingdom Nationwide Building Society Building society
September 8, 2008 United Kingdom Cheshire Building Society United Kingdom Nationwide Building Society Building society
September 14, 2008 - Presumed United States Merrill Lynch United States Bank of America Investment bank $4.4×10^10 [6]
September 16, 2008 - Presumed United States American International Group United States United States federal governmentA Insurance company $8.5×10^10 [7]
September 17, 2008 - United States Lehman BrothersB United Kingdom Barclays plc Investment bank $1.3×10^9 [8]
September 18, 2008 - Presumed United Kingdom HBOS United Kingdom Lloyds TSB Diversified financial services $2.185×10^10 [9]
September 26, 2008 United States Washington Mutual United States JPMorgan Chase Savings and loan association $1.9×10^9 [10]
September 26, 2008 United States Lehman BrothersC Japan Nomura Holdings Investment bank $2 [11]
September 28, 2008 United Kingdom Bradford & BingleyD United Kingdom Her Majesty's Government (Mortgage Assets)
Spain Banco Santander SA (Savings Liabilities) 		Diversified financial services £2.11×10^10 [12]
September 28, 2008 Belgium Netherlands Luxembourg Fortis Netherlands Government of the Netherlands (Dutch assets)
France BNP Paribas (Belgian and Luxembourg assets) 		Diversified financial services €1.12×10^10 [13]
September 29, 2008 - Abandoned United States Wachovia United States CitigroupE Retail and investment banking $1.5×10^10 [14]
September 30, 2008 Belgium Dexia Belgium France Luxembourg The Belgian, French and Luxembourg governments Public finance and retail [15]
October 3, 2008 United States Wachovia United States Wells FargoF Retail and investment banking $1.5×10^10 [16]
October 7, 2008 Iceland Landsbanki Iceland Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority Commercial Bank [17][18]
October 8, 2008 Iceland Glitnir Iceland Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority Commercial bank [19][20]
October 9, 2008 Iceland Kaupthing Bank Iceland Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority Commercial bank [21][22]
October 9, 2008 Australia BankWest (subsidiary of HBOS) Australia Commonwealth Bank of Australia Bank £1.2 billion [23]

Bank failures

United States of America

Bankrupt, filed for bankruptcy protection, or closed and received by the FDIC
Date Company Deposits and/or branches taken by Type of company bankrupt or closed References
February 2, 2007 Metropolitan Savings Bank, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Allegheny Valley Bank; FDIC [24]
September 28, 2007 NetBank, Alpharetta, Georgia ING Direct; FDIC Retail and mortgage bank [25][26]
October 4, 2007 Miami Valley Bank, Lakeview, Ohio Citizens Banking Corp; FDIC [27][28]
January 25, 2008 Douglass National Bank, Kansas City, Missouri Liberty Bank and Trust Company; FDIC [29]
March 7, 2008 Hume Bank, Hume, Missouri Security Bank; FDIC [30]
May 9, 2008 ANB Financial, Bentonville, Arkansas Pulaski Bank and Trust Company; FDIC [31]
May 30, 2008 First Integrity Bank, Staples, Minnesota First International Bank and Trust; FDIC [32]
July 11, 2008 IndyMac Bank, Pasadena, California IndyMac Federal Bank; FDIC savings and loan association [33]
July 25, 2008 First National Bank of Nevada, Reno, Nevada; First Heritage Bank, Newport Beach, California Mutual of Omaha; FDIC [34]
August 1, 2008 First Priority Bank, Bradenton, Florida SunTrust Bank; FDIC [35]
August 22, 2008 The Columbian Bank and Trust Company, Topeka, Kansas Citizens Bank & Trust; FDIC [36]
August 29, 2008 Integrity Bank, Alpharetta, Georgia Regions Bank; FDIC [37]
September 5, 2008 Silver State Bank, Henderson, Nevada Nevada State Bank; National Bank of Arizona; FDIC [38]
September 15, 2008 Lehman Brothers (filed for bankruptcy protection) Investment bank [39]
September 19, 2008 AmeriBank, Northfork, West Virginia Pioneer Community Bank; The Citizen's Saving Bank; FDIC [40]
September 25, 2008 Washington Mutual JPMorgan Chase; FDIC savings and loan association [41]

United Kingdom and Iceland

Banks that have been put into administration; or the assets have been transfered to another bank under the provisions of the Banking (Special Provisions) Act 2008

Date Company Deposits and/or branches taken by Type of company bankrupt or closed References
October 9, 2007 Icesave (subsidiary of Landsbanki (Iceland)) Her Majesty's TreasuryG Online savings bank
October 8, 2007 Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander (subsidiary of Kaupthing Bank (Iceland)) placed in administration Corporate investments and private banking
October 8, 2007 Heritable Bank (subsidiary of Landsbanki (Iceland)) ING DirectH Private banking
October 8, 2007 Kaupthing Edge (division of Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander) ING DirectI Online savings bank

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ "UK government nationalised Northern rock". BBC. 2008-02-17.
  2. ^ White, Ben (May 29), "Bear Stearns passes into Wall Street history", Financial Times {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  3. ^ >Steve Hodge (2008-09-05). "Catholic society offers merger bonuses". Financial Times.
  4. ^ Associated Press (2008-07-01). "Bank of America completes deal for Countrywide Financial". San Jose Mercury News.
  5. ^ McLaughlin, Kim (2008-08-26). "Danish central bank buys out ailing Roskilde bank". Reuters. Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 2008-10-05. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Matthew Karnitschnig (2008-09-14). "Bank of America Reaches Deal for Merrill". The Wall Street Journal. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ a b Edmund L. Andrews, ; et al. (2008-09-16). "Fed's $85 Billion Loan Rescues Insurer". The New York Times. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  8. ^ a b BBC,; et al. (2008-09-17). "Judge approve 1.3 billion deal". BBC. {{cite news}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  9. ^ AP (2008-09-18). "Lloyds TSB confirms deal to take over HBOS PLC". International Herald Tribune.
  10. ^ BBC,; et al. (2008-9-26). "Regulator sells WaMu to JPMorgan Chase". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  11. ^ a b KyodoNews (2008-9-26). "Nomura pays only $2 for Lehman Brothers European unit". JapanToday. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ "Banco Santander SA buys the banking assets of Bradford & Bingley". Bloomberg. 2008-9-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Clark, Nick (2008-09-30). "Fortis gets €11bn lifeline from three governments". The Independent. Retrieved 2008-09-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  14. ^ a b Ellis, David (2008-09-29). "Citigroup buys Wachovia bank assets for $2.2B". CNN. Retrieved 2008-09-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  15. ^ "Second Belgian bank gets bail-out". BBC News. 2008-09-30. Retrieved 2008-09-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  16. ^ a b David Mildenberg,Josh Fineman (2008-10-3). "Wells Fargo merger with Wachovia". Bloomberg. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (IFSA) Proceeds to take Control of Landsbanki to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland (07.10.2008)
  18. ^ Landsbanki Íslands, Press release: Landsbanki's Operations Continued Under Unchanged Management (October 07, 2008)
  19. ^ The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Glitnir to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland (08.10.2008)
  20. ^ Glitnir Bank, News: Glitnir's Operations Continued – Lárus Welding to continue as CEO (08.10.2008)
  21. ^ The Financial Supervisory Authority - Iceland, News: Based on New Legislation, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority (FME) Proceeds to take Control of Kaupþing to ensure Continued Commercial Bank Operations in Iceland (09.10.2008)
  22. ^ Kaupthing Bank, Press release: Kaupthing Bank turns to the Icelandic FSA (2008.10.09)
  23. ^ Australian assets sale boosts HBOS funds
  24. ^ "FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of Metropolitan Savings Bank, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" (Press release). FDIC. 2007-02-02.
  25. ^ "Failed Bank Information: NetBank, Alpharetta, GA, Closing Information". FDIC. 2007-09-28.
  26. ^ "ING wins from online bank failure". BBC News. 2008-09-30.
  27. ^ "Bank Closing Information for Miami Valley Bank, Lakeview, Ohio". FDIC. 2007-10-04.
  28. ^ "Miami Valley becomes year's 3rd failed bank - FDIC". Reuters. 2008-10-04.
  29. ^ "FDIC Approves the Assumption of all the Deposits of Douglass National Bank, Kansas City, Missouri" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-01-25.
  30. ^ "FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of Hume Bank, Hume, Missouri" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-03-07.
  31. ^ "FDIC Approves the Assumption of the Insured Deposits of ANB Financial, National Association, Bentonville, Arkansas" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-05-09.
  32. ^ "FDIC Approves the Assumption of All the Deposits of First Integrity Bank, National Association, Staples, Minnesota" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-05-30.
  33. ^ "FDIC Establishes IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB as Successor to IndyMac Bank, F.S.B., Pasadena, California". FDIC. 2008-07-11.
  34. ^ "Mutual of Omaha Bank Acquires All Deposits of First National Bank of Nevada and First Heritage Bank, N.A." (Press release). FDIC. 2008-07-25.
  35. ^ "SunTrust Bank Acquires the Insured Deposits of First Priority Bank, Bradenton, Florida" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-08-01.
  36. ^ "Failed Bank Information: NetBank, Alpharetta, GA, Closing Information". FDIC. 2008-08-22.
  37. ^ "Failed Bank Information: Integrity Bank, Alpharetta, GA Closing Information". FDIC. 2008-08-29.
  38. ^ "Failed Bank Information: Silver State Bank, Henderson, NV Closing Information". FDIC. 2008-09-05.
  39. ^ "Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. Announces It Intends to File Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Petition" (PDF) (Press release). Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. 2008-09-15. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
  40. ^ "Pioneer Community Bank, Inc., and the Citizens Savings Bank Acquire All Deposits of Ameribank, Inc., Northfork, West Virginia" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-09-19.
  41. ^ "JPMorgan Chase Acquires Banking Operations of Washington Mutual" (Press release). FDIC. 2008-09-19.
  42. ^ "HIGHLIGHTS-Britain nationalises Bradford & Bingley". Reuters. 2008-09-29. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
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