Chalcha

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The Khalkha - Mongols (also Khalka) with about 70% of the population, the dominant ethnic group in the modern state Mongolian . Their language is one of the Eastern Mongolian dialects and forms the basis for the writing of Mongolian in Cyrillic script (see Mongolian language ).

history

Formation and structure of the Chalcha from the 16th to 18th centuries

The Chalcha formed in the 16./17. Century from the amalgamation of older Mongol groups. Batumöngke Dayan Khan put his fifth son Alcu Bolod (* 1490) and his eleventh son Geresenje (1489–1549) as their princes. The well-known Chalcha princes of the 17th century, however, came from the descendants of Dayan Khan's eleventh son. After Geresenje's death, Qatanqai, his main wife, distributed the people among the seven sons, from which four large groups emerged: those of the Tüsiyetü-Khan , the Chechen-Khan , the Jasaktu-Khan and the Altan-Khan . The Tüsiyetü khans descended from Geresenjes second son Nunuqu (* 1534), the Chechen khans from his fourth son Amin dural (* 1536) and the Jasaktu khans as well as the Altan khans from the elder, Asiqai darqan (* 1530) . The first Altan Khan was a younger cousin and thus actually a follower of a Jasaktu Khan , but had independently risen to Khan. His line lost power in the 1660s. In addition to the three or four khan, there was the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu Dsanabadsar (1635–1723), another religious authority whose word applied to all four groups. Reincarnations of Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu officiate to this day.

There was no question of a common policy of the Chalcha princes, especially after 1662, when military clashes broke out among the khan with the murder of a Jasaktu Khan . Under Manchu rule, a new aimag was formed in 1725 , that of Sajn Noyan Khan (a younger line of the Tüsiyetü khans ), so that in the 18th century the Tüsiyetü Khan Aimag (he was the highest ranking), the Chechen Khan Aimag , the Jasaktu-Khan Aimag, and Sajn Noyan-Khan Aimag existed.

Loss of independence

In contrast to the Chakhar Mongols and other groups, the Chalcha were able to maintain their independence from the Manchu Empire until 1688 and 1691 respectively. It was not until the threat from the jungles under Khungtaidschi Galdan (ruled 1676-1697, he defeated the Tüsiyetü Khan Caqundorji in 1688 ) that they finally came under the protection of the emperor and in a ceremony in Dolon Nor in 1691 to the Manchus subject. They integrated the newly won area of ​​the Chalcha as Outer Mongolia into their imperial administration. Therefore “Chalcha” is sometimes used as a synonym for “Outer Mongolia”. The princes were made public officials and all matters (confirmations, promotions, dismissals, dispositions, receptions, etc.) were controlled and coordinated by the Li fan yuan office .

The Mongols in the 18th and 19th centuries

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Mongolia recorded a population decline due to syphilis , tuberculosis and monastic life, but also due to radical economic changes. With the Manchu officials, the Han Chinese trading companies advanced into the steppe. They needed a permit for tax reasons, but (after initial attempts) were no longer hindered. The administration tried to counter-finance the expenditure for Mongolia and to bind the Mongols more closely to China. In the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, more and more Han Chinese immigrated after the monasteries and princes leased them land. The Chinese trading companies also accepted land as payment from the princes and sublet it. All of this was illegal, but was not punished, so that around 1800 the Manchu government had to recognize the Chinese settlement as a fact with the establishment of its own administrations, at least in some areas.

Pressure from excessive demands from princes, monasteries and Chinese moneylenders has made many Mongols chronic debtors, forcing them to sell their animals (at a loss) or turn to agriculture, the latter even in Outer Mongolia. When the Chinese farmers settled, much and substantially necessary pastureland (i.e. often winter pastures) was lost, so that in the mid-19th century, Chinese influence was pervasive, at least in Inner Mongolia . In Outer Mongolia , i.e. H. In the area of ​​the Chalcha this development was delayed due to inadequate transport connections and the weaker concentration of the monasteries, but it followed the same trends. Even the princes were indebted to the Chinese, which is why they raised more and more taxes.

Attempts to use anonymous secret societies ( dughuyilang ) to defend themselves against the authorities, traders and settlers were not very promising. Under such conditions, many Mongols fled their pastures. If they were caught, they faced severe penalties, both from the administration and the monasteries. They made their way through life with semi-criminal activities (any kind of work, begging, robbery, prostitution), preferably in the growing commercial, garrison and monastery towns such as Urga , Erdene Dsuu , Uliastai , Kobdo , Kjachta or in Inner Mongolia. But even the monks of low rank could not survive in their monasteries, which is why they (in view of the prohibition of additional work) returned home and begged or stole. Crime grew steadily in the 19th century.

Among the Mongol princes of the 19th century is z. B. To Wang worth mentioning.

Founding of what is now Mongolia

With the overthrow of Manchu rule in China, the khalcha under their traditional leadership (i.e. the princes and clergy, not the intellectuals of later years) declared themselves independent again in 1911, and the eighth Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu (also titled Bogd Gegeen, 1870-1924 ) was installed as the nominal head of state. That was the foundation of what is now Mongolia .

Remarks

  1. ↑ In the earlier, intact nomad society, they would have looked after the cattle of rich people.
  2. ↑ Inner Mongolia, on the other hand, could no longer make itself independent. It was far more inferior to the Chinese settlement, not least because of the railway construction after 1909 (Kalgan, Hohhot, Saratschi), and materially dependent on the Chinese economy. Furthermore, the princes there shared their property and their interests with China and, after 1911, with the Chinese warlords.

literature

  • Udo B. Barkmann: History of Mongolia or the "Mongolian Question". The Mongols on their way to their own nation-state . Bouvier, Bonn 1999, ISBN 3-416-02853-8 .
  • Michael Weiers (Ed.): The Mongols. Contributions to their history and culture . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1986, ISBN 3-534-03579-8 .