Oirats

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Dissemination of Mongolian languages , 2011. Oiri is held in shades of brown.

The Oirats are west Mongolian tribes who controlled large parts of Central Asia during the time of Genghis Khan , formed the Dörben Oirat tribal confederation from the 15th to the 17th centuries and founded the Djungarian Khanate in 1640 , which disintegrated again from 1757. The territories of the Oirats were then conquered by the Chinese Qing Empire and Russia .

The Oirats were often called the Djungars . Occasionally the spelling of the word Oiraten changes to "Oiroten".

composition

The main tribes of the Oirats were the Chorosen , Dürbeten , Torguten and Choschuten ; they originally lived south of the Altai Mountains . The part that migrated to the west is now known as the Kalmyks . Smaller tribes were Khoid , Bayad , Myangad , Zachtschin and Baatud .

  • Dürbeten ( Dörböd , Mongolian: Дөрвөд / Dörwöd) moved from 1600 to the area between Central Kazakhstan and Lake Balkhash .
  • Chorosen ( Choros , Mongolian: Цорос) moved from 1600 to an area east of the Dürbeten, from Lake Balkhash to around Urumqi . They also include the Olot (Mongolian: Өөлд / Ööld). They have been referred to as Djungars in other languages ​​since the 17th century ; from this the area name Dzungarei in today's China is derived.
  • Torguten ( Torghuud , Mongolian: Торгууд / Torguud) moved far to the west through southern Siberia, first towards the Urals , to settle on the lower Volga from 1632 .
  • Choschuten (Mongolian: Хошууд / Choschuud) moved from 1600 to the east, to the north of Tibet and allied themselves with the Dalai Lamas.

Far more numerous but subjugated Tibetans , Uighurs , Kyrgyz and Kazakhs lived in these vast areas . In the history of Kazakhstan , the time of the Oiir rule is referred to as the second Mongol period or the "Great Disaster". The Oirats did not form a unified empire - the Dörben Oirat tribal confederation had disintegrated in the 1630s - and each tribal prince acted independently.

overview

The tribes that later belonged to the Oirats can be traced south of the Altai Mountains since around 1200 , where they were subjugated by Genghis Khan and took part in the Mongolian expansion in the 13th century. After the Mongols withdrew from China in 1368, they lived again in the Altai area. There they formed a tribal confederation, Dörben Oirat . There followed a long phase of conflicts between the various Mongolian tribal associations for supremacy, in which the Oirats temporarily became the dominant power under Esen Tayishi (1439 / 40-55). They were later defeated by the Khalkha Mongols under Dayan Khan . In the following period from 1600 to 1630 the majority of the Oirats emigrated from their old homeland.

From 1640 the Djungarian Khanate united the Orians, expanded and waged wars with the neighbors. The Chinese army used this to expand to the west in 1715-24: the Choschuten Khanate was eliminated, the southern parts of the highlands of Tibet became the Chinese protectorate under the Dalai Lamas, and the Djungars had to withdraw from western Tibet in 1720, which ultimately became the case Djungarian Khanate defeated by China in the east and the Kazakhs in the west from 1745. The Oirats from what is now Kazakhstan either fled east to the now Chinese-ruled Dzungary or to the western Kalmyks. As a result of these events, the Kalmyks in the west were spatially separated about 2000 kilometers from the other Oirats in the east.

At the beginning of 1771, a majority of the Kalmyks decided to return to the old settlement area on the Altai. Until 1786 they moved against the resistance of the Kazakhs with heavy losses through Kazakhstan, only 66,000 of over 169,000 people reached the river Ili .

Beginnings

The tribes that later belonged to the Oirats lived on the upper Yenisei from hunting and grazing around 1200 . During the formation of the Mongol Empire in 1206, a former ally of the Jamukha Gurkhan , the Oirate Hutuha Beki , submitted to the Genghis Khan and helped him in several battles and negotiations in pacifying the forest and shepherd peoples in the taiga up to the Irtysh (1207– 1208). In gratitude, Genghis Khan married two princesses with two Hutuha's sons, including his daughter Kökögän. Hutuha's territory was subordinated to Dschötschi , Genghis Khan's son, but was able to maintain its independence.

As a result, the Oiratenfürsten had a special status among the "Mongols" due to the marriage relationships, which they shared with only a dozen families. Nevertheless, the Oirats were not spared by the Mongolian army organization , for example around 1337/38 one records an Oirats troops in Iran , which had come there almost a hundred years earlier.

Dörben Oirat

The Ming Empire and the 'Khanate of the Oirats' =' Khanate of the Oirat, 1415

After the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the departure of the Mongols from China in 1368, Western Mongols lived again as horse breeders on the Altai . There they formed a tribal confederation of the four main tribes, which was called Dörben Oirat and existed until 1636. The members of this confederation were referred to as Oirats from Mongolian Oirad ( Oirat / Kalmyk Öörd ). Another term " Djungars " from Mongolian: Dschüün Ghar ("left wing") originally referred to all Oirats, but since the 17th century it has only been used in other languages ​​for the sub-tribe of the Chorosen. Another alternative name "Kalmucks" can be traced back to the 14th century. From this the Russian name kalmyk developed , which later established itself as a term for the groups living far in the west.

Struggle for supremacy

Dörben Oirat played a leading role in Mongolia shortly after 1400 in the difficult to unravel conflicts (including the death of the Mongol khan Elbeg). So put the Oiratenführer Batula (also: Mahamu ), for example, the Khan Delbeg (r. 1411-1414 / 15) in his office. Batula's development of power was a thorn in the side of the Ming Emperor Yongle , so that in 1414 he took to the field against him. Batula (Mahamu) fled to Tula, where he was killed.

This only shook the rise of the Oirats briefly. His son Toghan and his son Esen Taiji claimed an area of ​​influence from the Ili (where they successfully fought against the Chagatai khans several times ) to the border of China. The Genghisids had little more than nominal rule over Mongolia and Toghan Taiji is said to have tried to make himself Khan shortly before his death in 1439.

Remains of the Mongol Empire (colored brown) before 1500.
Green letters: successor states, all now Turkish-speaking and (except for the Siberian Khanate ) also Islamized.
Blue letters: Mongolian tribal associations, including 'Dörben Oirat' = 'Four Oirats'.
Black writing: other states and peoples.

In 1449 Esen Taiji succeeded in capturing the Ming Emperor Zhengtong after a victory at Tumu (Tumu Crisis ). He could not take advantage of his success and had to be content with a ransom. Then Esen Taiji asked the nominal Mongol Khan Toyto Bugha (his brother-in-law, ruled 1439-1452) to arrange his succession in favor of the Oirats. He refused, but eventually paid for the tribal war with his life, so that Esen Taiji (although not a Genghiside) now made himself Khan. But already in 1455 the Oirats got rid of him in an internal dispute.

According to the Tarik-i-Rashidi, Esen Taiji's successor was his son Amasandji . But the Oirats seem to have lost their family and internal cohesion at this time, despite external successes (great victory over the Uzbeks in 1456/57, another over the Tschagatei Khan Yunus ). In any case, around 1468 the forces of the Northern Yuan (cf. Manduchai ) unexpectedly triumphed and the Oirats, under different leaders, moved apart in several directions. Subsequently, under Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan, the Genghisid rule of the Northern Yuan was renewed .

Division and withdrawal

A series of defeats against the Mongol princes ( Altan Khan von den Tümed 1552 ff., Abdai Khan von den Khalka 1577 ff.) Put the Oiraten tribes at the end of the 16th century before the alternative of submission or emigration. At that time, many of their leaders lived scattered along the Irtysh, and around 1603 their scout troops were already roaming the country as far as the Khiva Khanate on the Aral Sea. Internal disputes among the Mongol princes gave the Oirats another breath in the early 17th century, and they were able to assert themselves victoriously against the Khalka in 1606, 1623 and 1628/9 , but the emigration had become irreversible. This had devastating effects on the inner-Asian steppes, which were soon shaken by frequent fighting until the remnants of the Oirats were defeated and annexed by the Chinese and (to a lesser extent) by the Russians in the mid-18th century.

The Oirats consisted (essentially) of four tribes: Dürbeten ( Dörböd ), Chorosen ( Dsungaren , Jüün Ghar ), Choschuten ( Khoshuud ) and Torguten ( Torghuud ). Occasionally the Khoit dependent on the dürbeten are mentioned. The princes of the four tribes partly referred to a different origin. Although the leaders of the Chorosen, Dürbeten, and Khoit were all related, and their clan name was Khoros, the leaders of the Choschuten invoked the descent of Jötschi Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan, and the Torguten leaders even referred to the old Kerait -Khane .

  • The Torguten moved under Khu Urluk (1616–1643) from 1610 through all of Central Asia to the mouth of the Volga and shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe for a while. Only in 1771 did some of them move back to the Ili area. The Torguts, especially those who stayed at the mouth of the Volga at that time, are better known under the name Kalmyks (“rest”).
  • They were followed by the prayers under Dalay († 1637), Dayan Ombo and others. a., and also an independent Choschuten group under Khundelen († 1648) and his nephew Ablay († 1672). It is noted in Siberia or the Urals and acted there repeatedly with the dürbeten against the Torguten and other neighbors.

Around 1615 the Oirats adopted Tibetan Buddhism , so that even the Torguten aristocracy in the West became Buddhist and sent their sons to monasteries or as far as Tibet. For example, the Torguten Prince Daichin made two pilgrimages to Tibet. Zaya Pandita (1599–1662), an adopted son of the Choschuten-Taiji Baibagas, also studied in Tibet from 1616 and after his return in 1639 he spread Buddhism among the tribes through his travels.

Djungarian Khanate

The Oiraten Alliance made several attempts to maintain internal peace. In 1616/7 and 1640, for example, the princes called large assemblies, decided on joint action against the Khalka or issued ordinances, but did not achieve lasting cooperation between the tribes involved. For example, in 1625 a tribal conflict broke out among the Oirats: their nominal head Baibagas (d. Around 1630), the Tayishi of the Choschuten, was defeated by his brother Chokur. The other leaders initially tried to mediate in the interests of unity, but eventually destroyed Chokur's group on the Ural River (1630).

Expansion of the Djungarian Empire (green) from western Tibet to the Ural River on a French map in 1720. To the northwest, the "Camp de l'Ajuku Chan" (= "Camp des Ayuki ") is also drawn.

The domestic and foreign political circumstances led to a new formation in 1640 at the meeting on the Imil River: Khungtaidschi Batur founded a new Oirate state - the Djungarian Khanate - and led his horde to the Ili region (Seven Rivers) in 1643 . This Oiratengruppe was henceforth as Zungars called and then claimed sovereignty over the other groups. His son Galdan occupied Kashgaria and then turned his attention to the inner Mongolian areas and their overlords, the Qing Dynasty - but here he failed. In 1696 the troops of the Qing emperor Kangxi (1661-1722) remained victorious on the Tula near Zuunmod , Galdan's wife fell and the Khan probably committed suicide.

The time of the Oirate was not over yet. Galdan's enemy nephew Tsewangrabtan came to power, initially kept peace with China and instead attacked the Kazakhs under Tauke from 1698 onwards. In 1717 Tsewangrabtans army appeared in Lhasa ( Tibet ) where he the regent Lhabzang killed by the Choschuten. This triggered a victorious invasion of Tibet by the Qing Army in 1720 . Another Qing army marched against the Djungary and was victorious at Urumqi (1720), so that Tsewangrabtan had to make peace in 1724. The Djungars remained successful in 1720 against the better armed Russians at Zaisan.

Tsewangrabtan mainly focused on the neighbors to the west. The Kazakhs suffered particularly from this. With the defeat of the Kazakhs in 1718 on the Ajagus river (on Lake Balkhash ), the time of the "great misfortune" began. But his relations with the Torghuts of Khan Ayuki (ruled 1670–1724) were not the best either - there a political marriage ended in conflict.

Chinese painting of the Battle of Oloi-Jalatu in 1756, the final defeat of the Djungars against the Chinese army.

Under Tsewangrabtan's son Galdan Tsereng (1727–1745) his policy continued. Then there were internal disputes and finally the annihilation of the Djungarian Empire by the Qing dynasty in 1754–1759 brought calm. The Chinese had installed the Khoit prince Amarsanaa , but with the support of all the tribes he turned against them, was defeated and died in exile in Tobolsk. At the same time or afterwards, the Chinese set up a massacre among the Djungars to prevent new uprisings; The Ili area or the whole of today's Xinjiang has belonged to China since then. The term Djungaren (i.e. left wing) was changed from Chinese historiography to oil solder or oil solder or its use was prohibited. The Chinese name for the jungle empire was also used in Europe.

Even today there are scattered Oirat ethnic groups and different dialects of an Oiri language . Over 200,000 of the speakers live in western Mongolia, 210,000 in China and 140,000 in the Kalmyk Republic .

Oirate princes

  • Hutuha Beki around 1200/08
  • Qada, Töyirälci et al. a.
  • ...
  • Batula or also: Mahamu approx. 1399-1415 / 16
  • Toghan Taiji 1415 / 16-1439 / 40
  • Esen Taiji 1439 / 40-1455
  • Amasandji or Usi-Temur 1456 – af.1469
  • Arkhan Taishi af. 1469-1487
  • Usi-Temur Hamag Taishi 1487-1502

Jüün Ghar or Djungars:

Khoshuud or Qoshoten in Tibet:

Torghuud or Kalmyks on the Volga:

Others

With the historical term Oiraten part of the inhabitants of the Russian Altai was designated by the Soviet authorities (1939: 47,717 people, main town Gorno-Altaisk ).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ The term Jüün Ghar, d. H. "Left wing" is said to have initially applied to all Oiraten tribes in the 17th century and later limited to the tribe of the Khoros and Ölöt. See R. Grousset: Empire of the Steppes, p. 520; M. Weiers: History of the Mongols, pp. 185, 210.
  2. ↑ The term was used by Islamic historians for the Oirats since the 14th century and was later adopted by the Russians for Oirats splinter groups settling on the Volga. Cf. M. Weiers: Geschichte der Mongolen, pp. 165, 185.
  3. ↑ According to K. Kollmar-Paulenz: Die Mongolen, p. 95, contemporary Chinese sources calculate that 30% of the 600,000 or so Jungars were murdered, 20% fled to the Russians and Kazakhs and 40% died of the leaves .
  4. ↑ See GW Leibniz : The correspondence with the Jesuits in China. Meiner, Hamburg 2006, p. 464f. ISBN 3-7873-1623-X .
  5. ↑ JO Svantesson, A. Tsendina u. a .: The Phonology of Mongolian. Oxford 2005, pp. 147-149, ISBN 0-19-926017-6 .

See also

literature

  • Qôijûngjabû (确 精 扎布Quejingzhabu ) u. a. (Ed.): Ôirad ayalgû û uge helelge yin materiyal (卫拉特 方言 话语 材料Weilate fangyan huayu cailiao ) language material of the Oirani dialect. 内蒙古 人民出版社Nei Menggu renmin chubanshe (Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House ), 呼和浩特 Hohhot 1986/1987. (bilingual Mongolian-Chinese, Oiri in IPA).
  • Michael Weiers (ed.): The Mongols - Contributions to their history . Darmstadt 1986. ISBN 3-534-03579-8 .
  • Grousset: Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Brunswick NJ 2000. ISBN 0-8135-0627-1 .

Web links