Women's suffrage in southern Europe

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The first female vote in Spanish history, November 1933.

The historical development of women's suffrage in southern Europe does not paint a uniform picture. Influencing factors included the position of the Catholic Church and the orientation of the women's movement. Women's suffrage was introduced in Albania as early as 1920. In other southern European countries, women were only allowed to vote during the Second World War , for example in Croatia, and in some countries only afterwards, for example in Italy . In San Marino , active women's suffrage was only introduced in 1958. The women had there also up to the elections of 1964 to wait until they were allowed to vote for the first time and received the passive right to vote until 1973. A special case is Spain , where women first the passive, but not granted the right to vote for the national parliament in May 1931 has been. It was only after a constitutional reform in December 1931 that women were finally able to participate actively in parliamentary elections for the first time in 1933. Under the Franco regime that was universal suffrage suppressed, and only with the restoration of democracy mid-1970s, women received the right to vote in its entirety.

Investigation of possible influencing factors on the political representation of women

Position of the Catholic Church

Pope Pius X proclaimed that women were wrong in seeking the same political rights as men. This statement reflected the conservative position within the Catholic Churches: the family was the center of a woman's life and any political activity would remove her from her service to husband and children. But at least the Pope characterized this statement as a personal opinion, which does not have the binding effect of a doctrinal opinion for the believers.

But the Pope's opinion was not without contradiction. Feminists Mary Kendall and Gabrielle Jeffrey called for a Catholic meeting on May 25, 1911 at Kensington City Hall . They founded the first Catholic organization in the world to promote women's suffrage , the Catholic Women's Suffrage Society . Joan of Arc led the company in the banner . The women wrote to the Archbishop of Westminster, who refused to take a clear position on women's suffrage, and they attended the coronation procession on June 17, 1911. The society defined itself as nonviolent, but it sent members to watch trials against suffragettes .

The Catholic side cited several arguments as advantages of women's suffrage, but these did not convince the Church: an enrichment of the perspective of those who voted on the laws on social issues as well as on marriage and family; an increase in standards for sexual abstinence; better protection for minors; greater attention to the child's health and emotional and spiritual needs.

A change was only possible when Benedict XV. Became Pope in 1919. Annie Christitch , a member of the Catholic Women's Suffrage Society , received an audience with him. Against the background of the changes after the end of the First World War , which led to the achievement of women's suffrage in a number of European countries, the Holy See had to adapt its position to the change: the Pope spoke out in favor of women's suffrage. At the same time, however, he emphasized that the family continues to be the natural center of women.

Influence of Catholic social classes

In Spain, the Church, which largely controlled the education system, was seen as responsible for the fact that Spain lagged behind other European countries on the issue of women's suffrage. The influence of Catholic circles in society was much stronger than that of the Church. In France and Italy, despite the support of the Pope, women's suffrage did not become law until about 30 years after the Holy See approved it. In very Catholic countries, the left and radicals who supported women's suffrage elsewhere feared the conservatives who supported the church, and so they turned against women's suffrage. Overall, women in Catholic countries in Europe received their right to vote relatively late, after the Second World War; Austria is an exception, which has to be seen in connection with the close ties to Germany.

Orientation of the women's movement

In predominantly Catholic countries, such as Spain, the women's movement focused heavily on the social concerns of women and not on women's suffrage. Women like Anna Maria Mozzoni , however, went from working for the education of women and their role in the family via the fight for a change in the role of women in society to the political level, which crystallized in women's suffrage.

Abolition of class differences at the expense of women's suffrage

The example of Italy shows how the abolition of privileges of certain social classes was to the detriment of women. Under the Habsburgs in Lombardy, Tuscany and Venice aristocratic women with landed property had the right to vote. With the Risorgimento in 1861, class differences in male suffrage were abolished. But women were not allowed to vote or hold public office. This became law despite the fact that women had previously given massive support to the patriotic cause and leaders such as Giuseppe Garibaldi had advocated women's participation in public life.

Individual states

Albania

On January 21, 1920 the general active and passive right to vote for women was introduced.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in December 1945.

Andorra

Active women's suffrage was introduced on April 14, 1970, and passive voting rights on September 5, 1973

Before Andorra's sovereignty was recognized, a woman was elected to the national parliament for the first time in 1985, following recognition of sovereignty in December 1994.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Full legal, economic and social equality between the sexes and thus active and passive women's suffrage were first guaranteed in the 1946 constitution (according to a different source for active and passive women's suffrage: January 31, 1949).

In March 1992 the country became independent. The first parliament was the Assembly of the Federal Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina .

The first election of a woman to the national parliament took place in December 1990.

Greece

In 1930 a council of states formulated that women should have an active and passive right to vote at local and municipal level. In April 1949 a law was passed that implemented this. The new constitution of January 1, 1952 explicitly emphasized the right of women to vote and be elected at the national level. Law number 2159, which guaranteed these rights, was passed by Parliament in May 1952. In the November 1952 elections, however, women were not allowed to vote despite having received the right to vote shortly before: the Liberal government argued that it was difficult to get more than a million female voters on the electoral roll and that either all women or none would vote should. A clause was inserted into the electoral law that blocked women's suffrage until the end of 1952.

Universal male suffrage had been in place since 1864.

Women's passive suffrage at the national level became law on January 1, 1952. Law number 959 of April 1949 had already given women the right to be elected in local and municipal elections.

Eleni Scourti , was the first woman elected to the national parliament in 1953; this election was held after the regular election date of 1952.

Italy

Campaigner for women's suffrage in Italy

Under the Habsburgs in Lombardy, Tuscany and Venice aristocratic women with landed property had the right to vote. With the Risorgimento in 1861, class differences in male suffrage were abolished. But women were not allowed to vote or hold public office. This became law despite the fact that women had previously given massive support to the patriotic cause and leaders such as Giuseppe Garibaldi had advocated women's participation in public life.

In response, Anna Maria Mozzoni wrote the book Woman and her Social Relationships (on the occasion of the revision of the Italy Civil Code) in 1864 . She was born in Rescaldina in 1837 into a noble but impoverished family . All her life she fought against conservative, nationalist currents. With her attack on the new constitution of 1861, she sharply criticized the family law, which equated women with minors and idiots: "For a woman, a husband means intellectual castration, constant inferiority, the destruction of her personality." From 1868 Anna was Maria Mozzoni the engine of the feminist newspaper La Donna . It was published by Gualberta Alberta Beccari , the daughter of a leading patriot. She campaigned for a reform of family law and spoke out against the regulation of prostitution. Anna Maria Mozzoni thought the church was morally depraved and rejected the institution of marriage. However, she slept with men and gave birth to an unmarried daughter, but later married. The historian Donald Meyer summed up the fact that she did not have to fear any negative consequences for her private life: "As long as private life remained private, Italians of high class were not subject to the official rules." In 1869 she translated The Submission of Women from John Stuart Mill into Italian. From the late 1870s, La Donna actively supported the struggle for women's suffrage. But the newspaper was criticized for its foreign image of women; the predominant image of women in Italy still revolved around the angelic mother. Anna Maria Mozzoni submitted a petition to parliament on women's suffrage in 1877. In 1878 she represented Italy at the first International Congress of Women's Rights in Paris, which took place there at the same time as the World's Fair . Soon the activist joined forces with other radical women in the struggle for universal suffrage and moved away from her liberal roots towards socialism. However, she always remained autonomous as a feminist. She founded the league for the spread of women's interests in Milan in 1881 , complained about the slow progress: "Senate, nobility, clergy and the queen, who is very submissive, aristocratic and not very intelligent, hesitate to take any reform measure." who could have allied with her, there were difficulties: the Italian industrial workers, who were the main clientele of the socialists, did not like it when their wives went out to work; and as in other countries, the party leaders often only paid lip service to women's suffrage without showing any commitment.

In 1905 the National Committee for Women's Suffrage was established. Especially in comparison to the women's organizations of the Catholic Church, which were very active, this association was small and without much influence. Liberalization resulted in universal suffrage in 1912, increasing the electorate from 3.3 million to 8.7 million men. This resulted in a strengthening of the women's movement. Many men, especially those from southern Italy, had the right to vote although they were illiterate, while educated women were not allowed to vote. But there was no tendency to significantly expand the right to vote again. The influential liberal Giovanni Giolitti took the position that women should be legally equated with men before they are granted the right to vote. The introduction of women's suffrage was not in keeping with his political goals. He didn't want to snub the Catholics because the Pope was still against women's suffrage. The socialists disagreed, mainly because they believed that women were too much under the influence of the clergy. In the lower house, a legislative proposal on women's suffrage was rejected by 209 to 48 votes.

The First World War represented a turning point, other issues were urgent. It was not until 1917 that a conference in Rome proposed a reform of the law. The Sacchigesetz of 1919 then gave women custody of their children, the right to manage their own property. It also opened up access to senior professions and public office for women.

Political pressure from the left, including from abroad, had led to the introduction of women's suffrage in Sweden and the Netherlands, for example, as women were viewed as a conservative bulwark against revolutions. In Italy, however, the king sought refuge in authoritarian solutions and relied on Benito Mussolini . In the first years of the dictatorship, all major feminist organizations voluntarily supported fascism. The fascists had promised to keep the socialists under control. They also gave the impression of supporting the Catholic Church, which was seen as the arrow of Italian family life. Giolitti also succumbed to the hope that the fascists would find a more moderate tone in the course of their exercise of power.

General active suffrage for men had been in effect since 1919. In the spirit of feminist reforms, the House of Commons ( Camera dei deputati ) also voted 174 to 55 in 1919 for active suffrage for women, but the Senate ( Senato del Regno ) refused to endorse the measure . On May 15, 1925, Mussolini appeared in person in Parliament to support a bill that would give women local suffrage. In the same year, however, he abolished all local elections.

From 1943 on, women formed women's defense groups for the freedom fighters to support them. In 1944 all anti-fascist women founded the Union of Italian Women ; Communists, socialists, Catholics and radicals looked together for a way out of the national crisis. At the end of 1944 they called on the now openly active political parties to support women's suffrage.

In 1945 the Christian Democrats and the Communists introduced a bill to introduce universal suffrage and the right to stand as a candidate. All other parties supported it and it became law on February 1, 1945. The following year was elected. According to Article 3 of Decree 23 of January 30, 1945, visible sex workers (i.e. those who carried out their trade outside of licensed brothels) were excluded from the right to vote, so that the right to vote for women was restricted. It was only Article 7 of Decree 74 of March 10, 1946 that confirmed the eligibility of citizens who were 25 years old on election day, i.e. without restrictions. In 1945 the monarchy was abolished by a large majority.

In June 1946 women were elected to the national parliament, here the Constituent Assembly, for the first time. In 1948 women won seats in both chambers.

In 1948 communists and socialists suffered a major election defeat. This was the reason for the communists to ask whether it had been a mistake to advocate women's suffrage. But men also voted for the Christian Democrats by a large majority. In addition, communists won elections at the local level, especially in northern Italy, which put them at the head of numerous communities. This invalidated the argument that women were to blame for the election failure at national level.

Kosovo

During the Second World War, the country was occupied first by Italy, then by Germany. After the Balkan campaign was divided Mussolini on 12 August 1941 the since April 1939 annexed Albania to Kosovo as well as some Macedonian territories. In Albania women have been able to vote since 1920. However, this reorganization of the borders was only recognized by the Axis powers .

After the Second World War, the Autonomous Region "Kosovo and Metohija" became part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on September 3, 1945, just like the Autonomous Region of Vojvodina . Full legal, economic and social equality between the sexes was first guaranteed in the 1946 Yugoslav constitution.

Croatia

In 1942, still under German occupation, the communists had recognized the active and passive right to vote for women. Full legal, economic and social equality between the sexes was first guaranteed in the 1946 constitution. A different source cites August 11, 1945 for the introduction of active and passive suffrage. Women received seats in the parliament of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia .

After independence in 1991, eight women were elected to the national parliament on August 2, 1992.

Malta

Agatha Barbara

On July 20, 1945, a bill was introduced in the National Assembly providing the right to vote for all women and men over the age of 18. Until then, only selected men over 21 could vote. The bill was passed. On September 5, 1947, the MacMichael Constitution came into force, giving women and men over the age of 21 the right to vote and stand for universal suffrage and the "one person - one vote" principle, abolishing multiple votes. Six weeks later, on October 25, 26, and 27, 1947, the first elections took place.

Universal suffrage for men and women was introduced at the same time.

Agatha Barbara became the first woman to sit on the colonial legislative body, the House of Representatives, on October 25, 1947 . She was the only woman to be re-elected in subsequent elections until February 16, 1982. In 1966, women were elected to the national parliament for the first time after Malta's independence.

Macedonia

The full legal, economic and social equality of the sexes and thus the active and passive right to vote for women were guaranteed for the first time in the constitution of 1946. Women were elected to the parliament of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Legislative Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia became the first legislative body of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia after the country gained independence on September 8, 1991. Five women were given seats in parliament in 1991. The first elections in the now independent country took place in October 1994 when four women were elected to parliament with a total of 120 members.

Monaco

Women were given the right to vote at the local level on May 24, 1945. At the national level, women were given the right to vote on December 17, 1962.

Passive women's suffrage: December 17, 1962

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Roxanne Noat-Notari , February 1963

Montenegro

The constitution of Yugoslavia, to which Montenegro belonged at that time, of 1946 for the first time guaranteed full legal, economic and social equality of the sexes and thus also the active and passive right to vote for women. In 1993, Montenegro became independent and women were granted universal suffrage and voting rights.

In 2006, for the first time since independence, there was a woman in parliament.

Portugal

According to decree number 19694 of May 5, 1931, women were given the right to vote and stand for election on condition that they had completed at least secondary school; Men, on the other hand, only had to be able to read and write. According to Adams, this clause resulted in very limited women's suffrage for women with high education.

With the electoral law DL 24631 of November 6, 1934, everyone who could read and write received the national right to vote. On November 24, 1934, three women were elected for the first time in the national parliament and were introduced to their office on January 11, 1935.

However, in elections to certain local bodies, some restrictions on women remained in place until 1968. In 1946, married women who paid taxes were also allowed to vote; it was not until 1968 that the restriction to married women was lifted.

After the military coup of 1974, a new electoral law was passed on May 14, 1974 (Law 3/74, Article 4, Number 1). According to the Decree Law No. 621-A / 74, Article 1.1 of November 15, 1974, Portuguese citizens who were 18 years of age or older on February 28, 1975 were eligible to vote for the Constituent Assembly. For the first time in Portuguese history, universal suffrage was recognized and exercised the following year: In April 1975, the members of the Constituent Assembly that drafted the 1976 constitution were elected. This was proclaimed on June 2, 1976 and thus constitutionally guaranteed equality of the right to vote for women and men for all elections.

San Marino

Active women's suffrage was introduced by the law of December 23, 1958. However, women had to wait until the 1964 elections before they were allowed to vote for the first time: the law of April 29, 1959 stipulated that active women's suffrage should not take effect until January 1, 1960. The decision of April 29, 1959 was confirmed by Parliament on July 7th.

Women received the right to stand as electorate on September 10, 1973.

A woman was first elected to the national parliament on September 8, 1974; four women were elected.

Serbia

In 1942, still under German occupation, the communists had recognized the active and passive right to vote for women. The full legal, economic and social equality of the sexes and thus the active and passive right to vote for women were guaranteed for the first time in the constitution of 1946.

The country gained independence in 2006, and in 2007 the first woman was elected to a Serbian parliament.

Slovenia

As in Austria, women who paid taxes could vote in local elections from 1849 onwards under the same conditions as men. However, they could not vote in person, but had to give a close male relative a power of attorney to vote for them.

On August 10, 1945, women in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia were given the right to vote and stand for election. Slovenia became part of Yugoslavia , which guaranteed the right to vote for women in the constitution of January 31, 1946. The full legal, economic and social equality of the sexes and thus the active and passive right to vote for women were guaranteed for the first time in the 1946 constitution. Women were elected to the parliament of Yugoslavia.

With the renewed independence in 1991 the right to vote for women was confirmed.

Universal male suffrage had been introduced at the national level as early as 1907.

The first election of a woman to the national parliament of Slovenia took place in December 1992; 13 women were elected.

Spain

Clara Campoamor, champion of the Spanish movement for women's suffrage, Plaza de Guardias de Corps, Madrid, 2006

Spain's political life was shaped by extremes, the extreme right-wing Catholics on the one hand and the militant anarchists and socialists on the other. The so-called Tragic Week in Barcelona 1909 began with the call of the socialists and anarchists to a general strike and ended with the pillage of monasteries. The royal family was positive about women's suffrage, as it hoped that it would strengthen the conservative forces against left opponents. However, the Spanish Catholic Church was against it.

As in other Catholic countries, the women's movement in Spain was strongly oriented towards the social concerns of women and not towards women's suffrage. The champion for women's suffrage was Clara Campoamor .

Spain remained neutral during the First World War, but the upheavals in Europe after the end of the war left their mark there as in Sweden. In 1919 there was a legislative initiative: women over 23 should be given the right to vote. The proposal was rejected, but women's suffrage has now become part of the Republican political agenda. The coup d'état of September 1923 was followed by the military dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera , which strengthened the right wing. Although the king had to overthrow the dictator because of popular protests, it was already too late to save the monarchy: Alfonso XIII. thanked in 1931 and a temporary coalition government was formed.

According to the law of May 8, 1931, the previous exclusion of priests, members of the public service and women from the right to stand for election to the national parliament was abolished. "Ironically, women were still being denied the right to vote." In July 1931 women were first elected to the national parliament; Clara Campoamor, who ran for the Radical Party , Victoria Kent and Margarita Nelken received seats.

On December 8, 1931, a new constitution was adopted and entered into force on December 9, Article 36 of which contained universal voting rights for women. In 1933 the first elections took place under the new constitution.

Universal suffrage was suppressed under the Franco regime . Laws on civil marriage and divorce were repealed, as was the decriminalization of abortion. Women were gradually granted some political rights: in 1942 a kind of parliament was established in which, in addition to members of the Falange Party and various state organizations, a hundred family representatives were provided, who were to be elected by heads of families and married women. From 1957 onwards, married women and those who were heads of families could vote in the elections of these hundred MPs. The first such elections were not held until 1967.

Only with the restoration of democracy in the mid-1970s did women regain full voting rights. In the 1976 referendum and the 1977 elections, women voted, and unrestricted universal suffrage for adults was guaranteed in the new 1978 constitution.

Universal suffrage for men had been introduced as early as 1868.

Vatican city

Women are not eligible to vote here. Elections only take place for the office of the Pope if he dies or (rarely) resigns ( Sedis vacancy ). In this case, the right to vote is limited to cardinals who were under 80 years of age on the day before the sedis vacancy occurred. Can be chosen in principle any baptized man valid at the Bishop ordained can be (ie is unmarried or widowed). In practice, only cardinals have been elected popes for centuries.

Cyprus

Active women's suffrage was introduced on August 16, 1960.

Passive women's suffrage: August 16, 1960

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Rina Katselli , May 1981

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Lidia Bacciocchi: Dall'Arengo alla democrazia de partiti. Legislazione elettorale e sistema politico a San Marino. Edizioni del Titano San Marino, 1999, p. 123.
  2. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 283.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 284.
  4. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 285.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 305.
  6. ↑ a b c d Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 308.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 302.
  8. ^ Judith Jeffrey Howard: The Civil Code of 1865 and the Origins of the Feminist Movenemt in Italy , in: Betty Boyd Caroli, Robert F. Harney, Lydio F. Tomasi: The Italian Immigrant Woman in North America. Toronto, Multicultural History Society of Ontario 1978, p. 16, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  9. ↑ Lucy Riall: Garivaldi: Invention of a Hero. New Haven, Yale University Press 2007, p. 372, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  10. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 3.
  11. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 4.
  12. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 7.
  13. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 44.
  14. ^ A b c d e Marie-Janine Calic: History of Yugoslavia in the 20th century. CH Beck Munich, 2nd edition, 2014, p. 216
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  16. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 152.
  17. ↑ Demetra Samiou: The History of Women's Suffrage in Greece, 1864-2001. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 439-451, pp. 448-450
  18. ↑ a b c d e Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: Introduction: Transition to Modernity, the Conquest of Female Suffrage and Women's Citizenship. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 1-46, p. 46.
  19. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. January 1, 1952, accessed October 2, 2018 .
  20. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 154.
  21. ^ Judith Jeffrey Howard: The Civil Code of 1865 and the Origins of the Feminist Movenemt in Italy , in: Betty Boyd Caroli, Robert F. Harney, Lydio F. Tomasi: The Italian Immigrant Woman in North America. Toronto, Multicultural History Society of Ontario 1978, p. 16, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  22. ↑ Lucy Riall: Garivaldi: Invention of a Hero. New Haven, Yale University Press 2007, p. 372, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  23. ^ Judith Jeffrey Howard: The Civil Code of 1865 and the Origins of the Feminist Movenemt in Italy , in: Betty Boyd Caroli, Robert F. Harney, Lydio F. Tomasi: The Italian Immigrant Woman in North America. Toronto, Multicultural History Society of Ontario 1978, p. 17, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  24. ^ Donald Meyer: Sex and Power: The Rise of Women in America, Russia, Sweden and Italy. Middletown, Conn., Wesleyan University Press 1987, p. 449, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 301.
  25. ^ Donald Meyer: Sex and Power: The Rise of Women in America, Russia, Sweden and Italy. Middletown, Conn., Wesleyan University Press 1987, pp. 222/223, cited in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 302.
  26. ^ Theodore Stanton, The Woman Question in Europe. London, Sampson Low 1884, p. 317, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 302.
  27. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 303
  28. ^ Richard J. Evans, The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia 1840-1920. London, Croom Helm 1977, p. 199, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 303.
  29. ↑ a b c d e f Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 304
  30. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 196.
  31. ^ A b Susanna Mancini: From the Struggle for Suffrage to the Construction of a Fragile Gender Citizenship: Italy 1861-2009. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 373-405, p. 374.
  32. ^ Giulia Galeotti: Storia del Voto alle Donne in Italia. Biblink editori Rom, 2006, p. 170
  33. ^ Giulia Galeotti: Storia del Voto alle Donne in Italia. Biblink editori Rom, 2006, p. 210.
  34. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 199.
  35. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 3, 2018 .
  36. ↑ Wolfgang Petritsch, Karl Kaser, Robert Pichler: Kosovo: Myths, Daten, Dinge (= Kosova), 2nd edition, Wieser, Klagenfurt 1999, ISBN 3-85129-304-5 , p. 135.
  37. ^ A b Marie-Janine Calic : History of Yugoslavia in the 20th Century, Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60645-8 , p. 167
  38. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 95.
  39. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved November 16, 2018 .
  40. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 96.
  41. ↑ a b c d Ruth Farrugia: Female Suffrage in Malta. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 389-405, pp. 396-397.
  42. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 250.
  43. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 251.
  44. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 240.
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  49. ^ A b c d Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 312.
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  51. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 308
  52. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 313.
  53. ↑ a b c Maria Luisa Amaral, Teresa Anjinho: Winning Women's Vote: Female Suffrage in Portugal. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 475-489, pp. 482-483.
  54. ↑ Lidia Bacciocchi: Dall'Arengo alla democrazia de partiti. Legislazione elettorale e sistema politico a San Marino. Edizioni del Titano San Marino, 1999, p. 153, note 1, law of April 29, 1959 number 17, in BU RSM, number 3, August 25, 1959, number 10.
  55. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 331.
  56. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 6, 2018 .
  57. ↑ a b United Nations Development Program: Human Development Report 2007/2008 . New York, 2007, ISBN 978-0-230-54704-9 , p. 346
  58. ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 6, 2018 .
  59. ↑ Roxana Cheschebec: The Achievement of Female Suffrage in Romania. In: Blanca Rodríguez-Ruiz, Ruth Rubio-Marín: The Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe. Voting to Become Citizens. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden and Boston 2012, ISBN 978-90-04-22425-4 , pp. 357-372, p. 339.
  60. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 346.
  61. ↑ - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. January 31, 1946, accessed October 6, 2018 .
  62. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, pp. 346/347.
  63. ↑ The original of the bust was stolen in 2016 and the bust was renewed
  64. ↑ a b c d e f g h June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, SantaBarbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , pp. 277-280.
  65. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 306
  66. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 355.
  67. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , pp. 306-308
  68. ^ A b c Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 100.