Military simulation game

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A military simulation game is the play through a military planning . The method is used both to evaluate military operations regardless of their actual execution, and to train officers .

A team of Royal Navy officers in a WWII simulation game

introduction

In military use, the term was deliberately chosen by the Bundeswehr after the Second World War in order to avoid misunderstandings in connection with the purpose and objective, although the procedure largely corresponds to the method of the classic war games . The modern use of computers, simulation models and methods of operations research and military system analysis have made it possible to use simulation games for a variety of purposes. Planned military operations are played out using planned structures within the framework of a scenario and thus tested for functionality and improved if possible. The developed procedures can be used for planning exercises , often referred to as CAX (Computer Assisted Exercises). The purpose of map exercises is to train and practice skills in many functions of the armed forces . Business games can be referred to as calculation experiments, closed or interactive simulations or combat simulations. In Bundeswehr planning, they are an essential part of the Concept Development & Experimentation (CD&E) approach.

In the English-speaking world, the simulation game is referred to as a wargame, military simulation, serious game, and sometimes as a "war game".

history

Certainly, great military commanders at least mentally played through their planned operations at an early stage . Initial written information can be found at SunT . A number of board games also have their origins in classic war games. In modern times, Johann Christian Ludwig Hellwig (1780) and Baron von Reisswitz (1824) and others have systematized the war game. It is undisputed that the technique of the military simulation game was largely developed and used by Prussian / German officers until the Second World War, and with great success. The methods were used by many military academies for training and exercise and in military staffs as part of operational planning.

In Germany, operational planning has been prepared with the help of business games (war games) since the Prussian / Austrian (1866) and German / French wars (1870–71). A typical example is the planning of the Battle of Tannenberg (1914) . Before the Second World War, the very successful first operations could be run through; during the war operations were prepared with simulation games and occasionally used directly in reality. (1944)

With the establishment of the Bundeswehr, simulation games could initially only be carried out in the classic way, for the purpose of the exercise and within the framework of NATO ( WINTEX / FALLEX exercises). First systematic investigations and analyzes using the methods of operations research and for the purpose of designing balanced structures for the air force and the army quickly showed that only the use of simulation experiments with the mainframe computers that are now available would bring solutions. In the IABG (Industrie Anlagen Betriebsgesellschaft), a simulation game center was set up on behalf of the Ministry of Defense from 1970, in which the simulation models could be developed in mixed scientific / military working groups and used for analyzes and planning. The models were subsequently adapted for use in planning exercises and used accordingly. In more recent developments, the simulation models are linked to the corresponding procedures of the allies bilaterally or within the framework of NATO. Up until 1992, scenarios in direct relation to the defense mission of the Bundeswehr and the corresponding operational planning were the basis of the simulations, from 1992 and after the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, scenarios of deployment abroad, logistics and training became increasingly important.

The development of the process can be seen in evolutionary stages. In a first generation, up to around 1970, relief and map models were used, which were occasionally supported by the first computer models on large computer systems. A research war game “FORKS” and an operations research model system “OPS” should be mentioned here. FORKS aimed at the investigation of new brigade structures of the army on the basis of data which were determined by systematic questioning of experienced officers of the Second World War. OPS was initially developed to investigate the structures of the air force and was able to demonstrate the potential and possibilities of computer models and simulations in a Bundeswehr plan exercise in 1970. Important results of this first generation were:

  • The use of computer models and simulations leads to significant improvements in the quality of the results and accelerates the investigations
  • The investigation of various problems of integrated air and land warfare is only possible by building a hierarchy of models to cover all process levels of defense planning
  • Since simulation games with interactive participation of people for decision-making and leadership are relatively complex, management modules must be developed in order to arrive at a closed sequence of the simulation. This is necessary in order to be able to cover a wide range of alternatives in long-term planning. ("Iterative model application")

In the next generation, this led to the systematic development of a simulation game concept and a model family by 1975. The FORKS was “computerized” to COFORKS, OPS was further developed to “RELACS” (“Real Time Land Air Conflict Simulation”) to enable integrated air-land warfare investigations, and “KORA” (Corps framework) was newly created for army structures to analyze in the corps framework.

In the generation up to 1980, the KORA models were further developed, RELACS was replaced by TALCS ("Tactical Air Land Conflict Simulation") and special operating software "BASIN" was created that meets the requirements of interactive simulation models, the management of extensive and complex data sets and the Evaluation of the simulation experiments fulfilled. This made it possible to make programming and organizing the software much easier.

In the following years up to 1985 and 1990 TALCS was replaced by "AGATHA" ("Allied Ground Air Theater Analysis"), since the NATO allies in Central Europe were fully integrated into the simulations. KORA (-OA) was further developed in combination with other software modules in different versions, increasingly used in planning exercises and planned as a component of the army command system.

In addition to the ongoing plan exercises supported by the models and simulations (Bundeswehr plan exercises, WESTEX exercises of the Bundeswehr leadership academy, corps exercises, combat simulations as part of the training), important studies on the structure of the armed forces, as well as the effectiveness and mix of weapon systems for the Ministry of Defense. In addition, the German representatives in international programs were supported by analytical work and argumentation. The MBFR negotiations ("Mutual Balanced Force Reduction") in Vienna (1972), the ongoing German-American general staff meetings , the ECAP project ("European Conflict Analysis Project") and during the collapse of the Warsaw Pact (1989 –1993) the JOSIM seminars (“Joint Simulation”). In JOSIM, several simulation games were carried out in changing compositions with participants from the military planning staff from the Soviet Union, USA, Great Britain, France and Germany in order to contribute to building trust and exchanging data during the end of the so-called "cold war".

In the years that followed, interest increasingly shifted to the new tasks of the Bundeswehr with missions abroad and support for NATO allies. The procedures were only used for planning exercises and for training. Since 1998 the NATO initiative for the development of common standards and interfaces for models and simulations has been supported and a CD&E (“Concept Development & Experimentation”) area was set up at the then Office for Transformation (now Planning Office) of the Bundeswehr .

Parallel to the IABG, models have been developed at the University of the Federal Armed Forces in Munich and in some larger industrial companies since 1980 to support teaching and to specifically design in-house products.

The developments presented here roughly only cover the German-speaking area. In NATO and in some countries (especially USA, UK, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands, France) there has been a long and intensive development and application of simulation games within the framework and for the purposes of the respective armed forces.

Method of the simulation game

Model simulation game

The simulation game method is the virtual consideration or investigation of a system or an operation in the future. Since the system does not yet exist, it can only be simulated virtually using a model. This simulation corresponds to a real experiment, but it is not possible because the system is in the future or because it is too complex to experiment with. However, the virtual experiment is logically and conceptually linked to the real experiment by a so-called experimental framework. This experimental framework corresponds to the simulation scenario.

scenario

Spectrum of scenarios for simulations

Since a business game is in principle based on a plan or a plan that is to be played / simulated, orientation towards the future is always important. Knowledge and modular components of the past can be used, but planning is always future-oriented. In order to examine plans, the environment, the objectives and the available resources must be defined. The time horizon of the planning is particularly important. Real situations that exist at the present time can be defined and described relatively precisely. In a medium, manageable period of time, resources can be assumed to be available that are used differently in the operations. In longer time horizons, structures are examined in which there is a large scope for design and diverse scenarios can be assumed. The further into the future one has to plan, the greater the number of possible and assumed situations and at the same time the uncertainty of realistic assumptions.

Model and simulation

A simulation game corresponds to an operation assumed or conceivable in reality in a scenario. The simulation game is set up, checked and evaluated by a user, experimenter or a control group. In the simulation game, the human functions can partly be perceived by people. This corresponds to the classic application and the meaning of a "game" and is also known as "interactive simulation". The operation is defined in terms of rules, a plan or a game model. Since a business game is a simulation and the simulation is the application of a model, the business game can be described and classified on the basis of the model and simulation theory.

Business game as a model

The general model theory according to Stachowiak describes the essential properties of models. Models are semantic thought models (thought experiments), physical models (flight models) or mathematical models on computers (calculation experiments). Some characteristics common to all types of models are:

  • Relation between model and original
  • Shortened compared to the original
  • Purpose of a model

Models are substitutions of an already existing original or a new construct that has yet to be created, in our case a plan. The differentiation between the representation of an original that exists in reality by a model or the previous formation of a not yet existing object or system to be constructed is important for the assessment. The previous education corresponds to the process of synthesis or the creation of new constructs. The previous education relation describes the way in which the properties of the construct are represented by the properties of the model. The simulation game is therefore a preliminary training for a new or further developed system or a means of predicting the behavior of systems for planning, design and system synthesis. Ideally, the model is the best possible implementation of a plan that exists at the time. Verification, validation and possible acceptance are based on experiments that are satisfactory in terms of target setting.

The abbreviation of models means that the properties of the originals or the constructs are not fully reproduced in the model. The model only represents the properties that appear relevant, suitable or sensitive for the user of the model. As a result of this shortening, a system can be manipulated by means of the model and can often only be examined with reasonable effort. The degree of shortening of the simulation game in relation to reality is lower, the more effort can be made. Which ratio between effort and shortening is appropriate and to be aimed for depends on many factors in each individual case. A key factor is the intended use of the simulation game.

The purpose of models means that models are only valid for certain model users, at certain times and under certain mental and real restrictions. Models are only developed and used to meet specific goals or motives of the model user. A model can only be assessed, accepted or rejected if this objective is taken into account.

Business game as simulation

The essential properties of simulation apply to business games :

  • experiment
  • dynamics
  • Certainty
  • Real components

experiment

The simulation is the implementation of an experiment with a specially created test setup or a model. The methods and principles of scientific / technical experiments are fully applicable in simulation if the simulation is to serve analogous goals. The acceptance of the results is determined by the framework conditions, the objective and the possibility of reproduction and the traceability of the results. For a simulation game, too, the experimental system with which it is prepared, carried out and evaluated is decisive for the quality of the results:

  • Poor systematics combined with too small a sample for the evaluation and interpretation of the results without considering the boundary conditions. For test purposes, exercises, demonstrations, entertainment or similar applications, this is usually sufficient.
  • Larger systematics in the sense of scientific experiments, whereby the reproducibility of the results plays a major role.

dynamics

When carrying out simulations and business games, time is always the only independent variable. Starting from an initial state, state variables are changed dynamically over time until an end state is reached. The state change can take place continuously over time in the same steps (time step sequence) or at certain events (event sequence). In business games, the synchronization of the simulation time with the real time is often important, since the performance of the real components in the business game, the game participants, is determined more by the real time than by the simulation time. The type of dynamic control of the process results in:

  • The time-step sequential game with a continuously increasing playing time with stretching or contraction in relation to real time. In special cases, the game time and the real time are synchronous. The time steps are called the game cycle.
  • The sequential event game with a time jump when certain events occur that require intervention by the game participants. A synchronization of the game time and the real time is possible, but the higher-level time control will have to be done by a continuously running clock.

Certainty

The certainty of the states of the simulated system depends on the extent to which random influences are directly taken into account. If the initial states are identical, the simulation produces different end states; the result is not determined. It can only be determined statistically on the basis of a sufficiently large sample in repeated simulations. One speaks of a stochastic simulation . However, if all processes in the simulation are fully determined, a specific or deterministic simulation is present. Repeated simulation runs produce the same final states. The certainty in the business game results from the function of the game participants and the type of game model and the rules of the game. However, it is basically of a stochastic nature:

  • If the game participants have a controlling function, a relatively large scope for decision-making and a large repertoire of sensible decision alternatives, the stochastic influence is caused by the game participants. This influence can be increased by a stochastic game model.
  • If the game participants have a control function, they must try to regulate the randomnesses generated by the stochastic game model in terms of a predetermined objective. Although the game model works stochastically, this can lead to surprisingly definite results.

To evaluate simulation games, a statistically relevant sample must be assumed. This can be given by a sufficiently large reproduction of final states, if only these are to be evaluated, or by the number of individual situations and intermediate states that have arisen in the business game. In the latter case, only a few simulation games are required.

Real component

A distinction is made between an interactive simulation , in which people intervene in the process by making decisions, changing data, etc., and a closed simulation , which runs completely automatically on a computer from the initial state to the final state. The interactive simulation has the advantage that many actions, decisions or rules that are perceived by people in reality can be represented in the simulation much more realistically. The disadvantage is the much higher effort in comparison to the closed simulation, which makes it possible to work out a large sample in a short time. However, since the human decision-making processes can only partially be represented by automatic rules in the very complex situations of a military operation, it may be necessary to resort to interactive simulations and business games.

The human component in a simulation game is integrated into the process, with people taking on the same functions that they would perform in reality. The organization of the people in the game can be done in many ways, but it should be appropriate to the purpose of the game, the effort to be made and the real system. Since the human effort is always a limiting condition, the availability of modern computer tools means that the human component is supported by suitable software. As a result, the game participants are relieved of manual and time-consuming activities in the course of the game and can concentrate fully on their actual decision-making functions. These computer aids can be seen analogous to the management and information systems also available on computers in real systems. The following simulation game classes result from the type of human participation:

  • In a one-party game, a player works against or with a game model that runs on a computer. This type of game has become very popular due to the widespread use of computers for pure entertainment.
  • The two-party game has been largely introduced, especially in the military sector, although the parties have to cooperate in different groups and teams, depending on the leadership organization.
  • In multi-party games, many parties are assumed at the beginning, but they can cooperate in the course of the game.

In the military field and in assumed combat situations, at least two goals or motives perceived by people in the game are opposite. In some applications the aim of a simulation game is to shape the circumstances of a cooperation. The following types of simulation can be seen in this context:

  • A covert game does not allow any insight into the intentions and alternative courses of action of an opponent. All possibilities of camouflage, deception and surprise can be the subject of the game. On the other hand, there is a need to uncover precisely these actions of the opponent through appropriate reconnaissance. The variety of alternatives for the game parties results in a relatively large amount of effort in the implementation of the game.
  • An open game, on the other hand, has a more analytical character. The moves are qualitatively better through the better knowledge of the position and the scope of the opponent. In this way, the game participants gain a greater insight into the overall situation and are better prepared for hidden situations, since surprises are no longer so easily possible. The simulation games are also easier to carry out and require less effort.

In addition to the human, real components, hardware and / or software can be used and tested in combination with simulation games. In particular, the development of the management systems benefited from the use of the simulation game methodology.

purpose

The purpose or objectives of a business game can be diverse and determine the design and assessment of the results.

experiment

The original and primary goal of a simulation game is, as the term implies, to test the plan of an operation or a project, to check its functionality and to look for opportunities for improvement.

The basic idea of ​​the experimental method is the variation of the test conditions and the determination of the resulting effects in order to draw conclusions about certain properties of the test object. The ever more complex systems and structures of the armed forces with diverse functions in difficult scenarios require their systematic investigation so that an improvement can be strived for based on the knowledge. The simulation game as a means of designing the best possible use of existing resources is used in particular to test and improve operational plans. In security policy, strategic concepts are developed and checked with the help of simulation games in order to be better prepared for possible conflicts.

The simulation game is used as an instrument to research people's behavior individually and in groups. An important area of ​​application is conflict research , in order to recognize the fundamental phenomena that lead to conflicts and thus possibly better master them.

education

The simulation game as a training tool is known in the military as a planning exercise. It has now proven its high educational value in other areas of training. The play instinct is a great incentive for active learning and participation, especially when using modern audiovisual aids. Experience is gained directly in the game that is otherwise only possible in real systems. This effect is used in technical systems through the use of simulators.

Conflict resolution

The simulation game can serve as an aid to resolve existing conflicts. Isolated military-political applications show that with the help of simulation games difficult negotiations on complex, controversial issues lead to all-round satisfactory results. This is a possible opportunity for negotiations on arms control and for accompanying peace negotiations. In some respects, civil law and mediation have the character of a business game in which the lawyers (game characters) based on fixed rules and under the direction of a judge or mediator seek a compromise based on a dispute. Here, the virtual confrontation, in the sense of a business game, leads to a high level of peace and security in human coexistence.

Management system

The simulation game as part of modern management systems offers the opportunity to test this management system under extreme loads, to check it and to examine it for weak points. In addition, the human component can be trained in the management system and prepared for exceptional situations. Aids that have been developed and thus tested for business games have emerged as important components of modern command systems for the armed forces.

literature

Web links

Wiktionary: Military simulation game  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

See also

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Bundeswehr Leadership Academy
  2. ^ Army combat simulation center
  3. ↑ Planning Office of the Bundeswehr
  4. ↑ See terms in the English language Wikipedia
  5. ^ Sun Tzu , Thomas Cleary: The Art of War . Shambhala Dragon, Boston 1988, ISBN 0-87773-452-6 . P. 92
  6. ↑ Militair Wochenblatt , Vol. 1824, March 6, Vol. 1874, July 11, Vol. 1874, Sept. 9.
  7. ^ Francis J. McHugh: Fundamentals of Wargaming . US Naval War College, Newport RI 1966.
  8. ^ Peter P. Perla: The Art of War Gaming . Naval Institute Press, Annapolis 1990, ISBN 0-87021-050-5 . Pp. 31-40
  9. ↑ Hausrath pp. 23-25
  10. ↑ Spiegel 41/1962
  11. ↑ White Book of the Bundeswehr 1971/1972, Systems Analysis and Operations Research, p. 136, para. 156
  12. ↑ Modeling & Simulation, Master Plan ( Memento of the original dated February 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , NATO, 2012 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ftp.rta.nato.int
  13. ↑ Klaus Niemeyer, Principles of Interactive Simulations (Games) for Military Problems , In: Proceedings of the Symposium on War Gaming, NATO / DRG, Brussels, 1987, pp. 50-90
  14. ↑ cf. History of the battle simulation center for the army
  15. ↑ Helmut Jäger, Experiences with a computer-aided training simulation game, In: Huber 1979, pp. 394–408
  16. ↑ Wolf Müschner, An Approach to MBFR Analysis, In: Huber, Jones, Reine, 1975, p. 207
  17. ↑ Reiner K. Huber, Military ORSA in Germany since the 1960s , lecture manuscript, ISMOR, 2008
  18. ^ Ingolf Stahl, 1983
  19. ^ Klaus Niemeyer, Modeling and Simulation in Defense , pp. 19-42, In: Advances in Modeling and Simulation, Information & Security, Vol. 12, 2003, ISSN  1311-1493
  20. ↑ Herbert Stachowiak
  21. ↑ Hilmar Linnenkamp: On Problems of Defense Planning and the Role of Operations-Analytical Games, In: Huber 1979, pp. 369–393
  22. ^ Klaus Niemeyer: A Note on Joint NATO / WP Gaming: No longer a utopian proposal? Pp. 271-274 In: Reiner K. Huber (Ed.): Military Stability, Nomos, Baden-Baden, 1990, ISBN 3-7890-2064-8