Perfectionism (philosophy)

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Under perfectionism (from the Latin perfectio perfection english perfectionism , French perfectionnisme ) is understood in the Ethics a variant of eudaimonistischen ethics. In contrast to the prudential variant of ethics, perfectionism does not pose the question of one's own good life, but rather what a good life can be for people as such. Since every single person basically has all general human characteristics as a trait, this approach is about cultivating and perfecting these traits.

Similar to utilitarianism , perfectionism is a purpose-oriented ( teleological ) theory, but not limited to the greatest possible use like that, but the good to be striven for can consist of knowledge , wisdom , success , aesthetic beauty , self-realization or similar values . Even if the interpretations of the good are very different, most theories of perfectionism have in common that one can determine the content of the good that is worth striving for. For a perfectionist, the good has an objective character and is not subject to human choice.

In a more narrowly defined variant, the characteristics of an individual person are considered for his perfection, to what extent he can realize a true self. This individualistic view of perfectionism is opposed to the aspect of perfectionism in political philosophy , which is about orienting society towards a morally good life.

Although eudaimonistic ethics deals with the question of the “good life”, in perfectionism this does not mean that the individual must subjectively experience his perfection as happy or successful. This points to the problem of individual standards and ratings. It remains to be seen whether objective or plausible standards can be found.

Older theories of perfectionism

The classical position of perfectionism can be found in Plato's state , where the latter drafts the ideal of a balanced relationship between the individual parts of the soul (personal perfectionism) and the social groups (craftsmen, warriors, wise men) within the state. By doing his or her own thing and taking his proper place in society, the ideal of good can be achieved. The government is taken over by the wise ( philosopher rule ) because they know best how the good is to be realized. Plato here outlines an aristocratic and paternalistic society. Such a form of perfectionism, which is based on a clear conception of the good, can be criticized , like Karl Popper, as dangerous and prone to intolerance towards deviating ideas of life.

The Aristotelian virtue ethic is also classified as perfectionism. According to Aristotle, man achieves the highest goal in life, happiness, in striving for wisdom through a virtuous life. It is human nature to develop one's abilities. He fulfills his destiny when he develops his being in a perfect form. But what real virtue is, only a few wise know. The truly virtuous participates in the community ( polis ) and strives for a life determined by reason .

"The free and educated man will behave in this way by himself, as it were, becoming himself law." ( NE 1128 a 32–33)

In Aristotle's image of the state, the politically responsible are characterized by a special knowledge and a superior morality. The task of the state is to enable the individual to perfect himself. In this respect, the ideal state also has paternalistic traits in Aristotle.

In modern philosophy, for Leibniz, perfection meant “growth in clear and distinct ideas”. With Immanuel Kant , self-perfecting is one of the ethical duties. ( GMS , AA IV, 423) Kant, however, rejected the paternalism of the state. While the individual is responsible for a virtuous life, the state is limited to regulating how people live together. It is not one of the tasks of the state to tell people how to live. “Not a paternal, but a patriotic government (imperium non paternale, sed patrioticum) is that which can only be thought of in relation to the goodwill of the ruler for people who are capable of rights. [...] This right of freedom belongs to him, the member of the common being, as a human being, as far as this is namely a being that is capable of rights at all. ” Wilhelm von Humboldt saw the state as Kant initially liberalist:“ der The state abstains from all due diligence for the positive prosperity of its citizens and does not go any further than is necessary to safeguard it against itself and foreign enemies. ”At the same time, however, he pursued a perfectionist ideal in education. The free constitutional state enables the citizen "the highest and most proportionate development of his powers in their individual peculiarity."

The idea of ​​perfectionism can also be found in Friedrich Nietzsche's superman , a perfect human being who creates and perfects himself beyond good and evil . His idea is closely based on the elitist image of Plato.

“There is no greater misfortune in all human destinies than when the mighty ones on earth are not also the first. Everything becomes wrong and crooked and monstrous. And when they are the last ones and more cattle than humans: the mob rises and rises in prices, and finally the mob virtue speaks: 'See, I alone am virtue!' "

Nietzsche's perfectionism is an ethic of self-realization.

Henry Sidgwick saw the greatest good in individual perfection. He characterized moral virtue as the most valuable element of human excellence. For Oswald Külpe , perfectionism pursues “the perfection or perfection as the purpose of moral will.” Perfectionism also corresponds to the ethical attitude that something recognized as good should be loved and pursued for its own sake. Such views can be found in Brentano , Moore or WD Ross .

Modern positions of perfectionism

Modern perfectionism is shaped by the confrontation with liberalism, which demands complete ( libertarianism ) or at least extensive ( egalitarian liberalism ) neutrality of the state with regard to the self-realization of the individual. This position is formulated , for example, by Ronald Dworkin as follows:

"A fair distribution is one that well-informed people create for themselves through individual choice, provided that the economic system and the distribution of wealth are fair in their community ."

On the other hand, Ulrich Steinvorth and Amy Gutmann state that this basic principle of democratic legitimation has a loophole. Gutmann, on the other hand, sets the principle of the democratic minimum, according to which a citizen is entitled to so many resources before any democratic decision on distribution that he can participate in the politics and culture of his own society to an appropriate extent. Gutmann's principle is a violation of the neutrality of the state and is justified with the creation of equal opportunities. By promoting everyone's investments, the state is acting paternalistically. Gutmann defends this with the public interest in raising children to be good citizens. It stands in the tradition of John Dewey (democracy and education), for whom it was a goal of education to influence democratic attitudes.

Joseph Raz alleviates the conflict between liberalism and perfectionism by recognizing autonomy as a fundamental value of the good. However, autonomy is not an absolute value, but only worthy of protection as long as it applies to morally valuable facts. If autonomy leads to repulsive options, the state is allowed to restrict the autonomy of the individual. Thomas Hurka takes a similar position , for whom perfectionism is determined by the fact that "the best political action, institution or government is that which promotes the perfection of all people."

Joseph Chan distinguishes an extreme perfectionism, which is based exclusively on the values ​​he has recognized, from a moderate perfectionism, which is mainly characterized by four points:

  1. A moderate perfectionism is not comprehensive, but promotes certain individual values ​​such as art, family or various virtues.
  2. There is no compulsion to lead a certain life, but individual values ​​are merely promoted through subsidies or taxes. The state tries to create an appropriate environment.
  3. The value of the good life is not the only (intrinsic) value. In addition, other values ​​such as political and legal equality, fairness of distribution, security and economic efficiency are promoted.
  4. In the case of moderate perfectionism, the state is often not a direct mediator of values, but leaves this task to social groups and only intervenes if corresponding groups do not form in individual areas.

Recently the position of perfectionism found a renewed discussion with Stanley Cavell , who speaks of a moral perfectionism with reference to Ralph Waldo Emerson . Cavell does not understand his considerations as an independent moral theory, but as critical considerations of traditional, both teleological and deontological theories, whereby he explicitly deals with John Rawls. The starting point is the idea of ​​an imperfect, but attainable self that develops in a constant process. This self is capable of learning and can be educated and strives existentially for a constant improvement of itself as well as its social world. For Cavell, moral philosophy must not stop at the elaboration of a principle for what is right or good, but must also take into account the integration of morality into actual living conditions, into the necessary communication with other people. Man is involved in concrete relationships, in obligations, loyalties and confrontations. Perfectionism means a constant striving to improve from the existing conditions. According to Cavell, a society needs perfectionism because institutions are only as strong, just and effective as the people who enliven them, use them and criticize them. To promote social values, Cavell advocates therapeutic use by elites. According to Cavell, individual perfectionism presupposes authenticity and is an ongoing process of self-criticism. The normative influence of third parties is rejected. In this way, perfectionism is open-ended and, contrary to Rawls' criticism, not teleological.

A critical examination of perfectionism can be found in John Rawls' " A Theory of Justice ".

See also: eudaemonia , philosophical anthropology , ideal , meliorism

literature

  • Joseph Chan: Legitimacy, Unanimity, and Perfectionism , in: Philosophy & Public Affairs 29 (2000), 5-42.
  • Christoph Horn: Liberalism and perfectionism - an irreconcilable contradiction? , in: R. Geiger / N. Scarano / JC Merle (eds.): Modelle Politischer Philosophie, mentis, Paderborn 2003, 219–241.
  • Christoph Henning: Freedom, Equality, Development: The Political Philosophy of Perfectionism , Frankfurt / M .: Campus 2015.
  • Thomas Hurka: Perfectionism (Oxford Ethics Series), Oxford / New York 1993.
  • Herlinde Pauer-Studer : Liberalism, bourgeois virtues and perfectionist aspirations , Berlin 2002, in: Gerechtigkeit und Politik, ed. by Reinhold Schmücker and Ulrich Steinvorth, 77–93.
  • Joseph Raz: The Morality of Freedom , Oxford 1986.
  • Martin Saar: Ethical-political perfectionism. Stanley Cavell and the practical philosophy , in: DZPhil , Berlin 55 (2007) 289-301.
  • George Sher: Beyond Neutrality, Perfectionism and Politics, Cambridge 1997.

Web links

Wiktionary: Perfectionism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Karl Popper: The open society and its enemies, Volume 1, chap. 3
  2. ↑ Oswald Külpe: Introduction to Philosophy, Hirzel, 9th edition 1919, ed. by August Messer, 395
  3. ↑ Immanuel Kant: About the common saying: That may be correct in theory, but is not suitable for practice , AA VIII, 273-314, here 291
  4. ^ A b Wilhelm von Humboldt: Ideas for an attempt to determine the limits of the effectiveness of the state, Reclam, Stuttgart 1986, 105
  5. ↑ Schlechta III 504/505
  6. ↑ Stephanie Zerm: morality as self-creation . An investigation into moral perfectionism in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, Diss. Hannover 2005, 247
  7. ^ Henry Sidgwick: The methods of ethics, London 7th ed. 1907, 8/9
  8. ↑ Oswald Külpe: Introduction to Philosophy, Hirzel, 9th edition 1919, ed. from August Messer, 394
  9. ↑ Rondald Dworkin: "Will Clinton's plan Be Fair" in: The New York Review of Books , January 13, 1994, 23, quoted from: Ulrich Steinvorth: Equal freedom, Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1999, 277; own translation
  10. ^ Amy Gutmann: Distributing Public Education in a Democracy, 115, based on: Ulrich Steinvorth: Gleiche Freiheit, Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1999, 277
  11. ^ Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson: Democracy and Disagreement, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1996, 67
  12. ^ Joseph Raz: The Morality of Freedom, Oxford 1986, 417
  13. ↑ Thomas Hurka: Perfectionism, Oxford 1993, 147 ("the best political act, institution or government is that which promotes the perfection of all humans.")
  14. ↑ Joseph Chan: Legitimacy, Unanimity, and Perfectionism, in: Philosophy & Public Affairs 29 (2000), 5-42, here: 14-16
  15. ^ Stanley Cavell: Conditions, Handsome and Unhandsome. The Constitution of Emersonian Perfectionism, Chicago 1991 (book form of his Carus Lectures) and: Cities of Words. Pedagogical Letters on a Register of Moral Life, Cambridge / Mass. 2004