Prenatal Psychology

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The prenatal psychology can indeed as a branch of developmental psychology regarded, historically, however, much of the pränatalpsychologischen assumptions, theories and speculations developed within the heterogeneous region of psychoanalysis . In this respect, the term prenatal psychology often refers to interdisciplinary approaches that combine several sub-disciplines of psychology and related scientific areas. This already applies to the theories of Otto Rank , who published the book The Trauma of Birth and Its Significance for Psychoanalysis in 1924 . In it he dealt with the psychological consequences of childbirth and also with considerations about the prenatal experience of the fetus. Rank already established the connection between prenatal psychology and a (psychoanalytic) cultural theory .

However, if the content of prenatal psychology is limited in the sense of academic psychology, then its object consists in the description and explanation of experience and behavior during the prenatal period. If the birth itself and the initial period afterwards are also to be discussed, one speaks of pre- and perinatal psychological aspects. In this sense, too, one can ask about the postnatal effects of the prenatal period.

A widespread assumption during the prenatal period was that the fetus was virtually completely shielded from external stimuli. Therefore, perception and awareness would only develop after birth. In the meantime, however, empirical findings are available that show that behavior and presumably also experience arise prenatally. This also applies to the subhuman area: acoustic conditioning, for example, can be used. a. detect in rat fetuses.

Scheme drawing of fetus with umbilical cord and placenta

Psycho-physiological aspects of the prenatal period

7th week embryo

Physical development during the prenatal period - especially that of the brain - is of particular importance for prenatal psychology. In the first eight weeks after fertilization of the egg , the maturing child as embryo called. After the internal organs are formed (from the ninth week of development) the term fetus (or fetus) is used.

Prenatal Brain Development

Head of a fetus, 22nd week, ultrasound scan

The basis of perception, experience and behavior is the brain. During gestational time , a huge neural network is created , the basis of every human experience. About half of the resulting neurons are destroyed again during brain development by “programmed cell death” ( apoptosis ). At the time of birth, a child's brain has as many neurons (around 100 billion) as that of an adult. Each cortical nerve cell is then synaptically connected with around 2,500 cells, after a year with around 15,000. Synapses are newly formed and dissolved throughout life ( neuronal plasticity ).

Motorical development

The physiologist Davenport Hooker studied reflexes or reactions of aborted fetuses extrauterine in the 30s of the twentieth century. The motor skills of the embryo and fetus can now be investigated comparatively well empirically with the help of ultrasound technology. From the 8th week the embryo moves the trunk, shortly thereafter movements of the extremities become apparent. With the help of ultrasound technology , it could be demonstrated that these are not just reflexes , but also endogenously triggered movements. According to Alessandra Piontelli, the fetus shows all movement patterns that are later found in the newborn baby.

Breathing movements can be observed from the 10th week, and amniotic fluid is absorbed into the lungs. From the 18th week eye movements can be detected, from the 23rd week rapid eye movements ( REM phases ) arise . These are probably related to sleep patterns and dreams. Fetuses drink amniotic fluid and pass urine into the amniotic fluid.

Development of perception and prenatal learning

The sensory modalities of the fetus arise during the prenatal period and are well developed by the time of birth. Their research and the determination of the point in time of their first functional capability is usually linked to experimental investigations into behavior that is triggered by stimuli. Research into prenatal learning has been around for about 100 years. Ray experimented with vibro-acute conditioning of human fetuses in the 30's of the twentieth century . After Hepper, however, it remained unclear whether this conditioning was successful. Spelt repeated these experiments in 1948. The unconditional stimulus (UCS) was a loud sound, the conditioned (CS) a vibration. The responses were maintained for about three weeks before absorbance occurred (disappearance of the response after the CS was repeatedly presented without the UCS). Hepper, in turn, successfully reproduced Spelt's study. The earliest vibro-acoustic conditioning was achieved in the 32nd week of pregnancy.

The habitat paradigm is often used to study prenatal learning . The fetus is exposed to a stimulus (often acoustic). The experimenter then observes the decrease in responses to the repeatedly presented stimulus. This procedure is often complemented by recording the response to a new stimulus. If the new stimulus is identified as different by the fetus, it triggers a new pattern of response, e.g. B. Increase the heart rate. This does not happen if the new stimulus cannot be distinguished from the old focal stimulus. In an empirical study from 1991, acoustic habituation was demonstrated by recording the heart rate in fetuses from the 28th week of pregnancy.

Various memory systems can be examined with such methods . This resulted in indications that both a functioning short-term memory exists from the 30th week of pregnancy and also a functioning long-term memory from the 34th week of pregnancy. Apparently, the fetus can store memory content for at least 4 weeks and then recall it.

Probably the earliest evidence of a vibro-acoustic habituation occurs in fetuses in the 22nd week of pregnancy. Scientists suspect that habituation to taste stimuli is possible earlier. Evidence of such a habituation was also possible in fetal rats. Prenatal learning is not limited to humans.

Babies remember musical patterns that they had heard prenatally, as research by W. Ernest Freud has shown. The empirical evidence is provided by registering heart rate and motor activity. Even the language acquisition apparently based on prenatal learning how suggested by the well-known study of DeCasper and Fifer from the year 1980th This study used an operant conditioning paradigm: with the help of its sucking activity, the baby could switch a tape from the mother's voice to a strange voice - and back again. The babies chose their sucking frequency so that they heard the mother's voice more often. Since the babies were less than three days old, this suggests that they had learned this voice prenatally.

Numerous empirical findings suggest that prenatal learning takes place. Human and animal fetuses are able to differentiate stimuli, to react to external stimuli and to carry out subsequent reactions that clearly refer to prenatally created memory contents.

Effects of prenatal stress

Experimental investigations are rather rare in this area. One study examined the effects of very light, artificially induced stress on mothers and their fetuses. When the mothers heart rate increased, the fetuses responded with greater variability in heart rate and a decrease in motor activity. The mechanisms of this transmission of the physiological parameters are so far unclear. In any case, the fetuses also react to conscious relaxation of their mothers with a decrease in heart rate and motor activity.

Numerous studies on the effects of prenatal stress are epidemiological and therefore correlative. Correspondingly, they should be assessed carefully in terms of their expressiveness. The literature on this topic is no longer manageable.

In the course of investigating Barker's “fetal programming” hypothesis , numerous studies have been carried out. According to Barker's hypothesis, stressful conditions in pregnancy favored or cause later diseases, possibly triggering epigenetic changes in the genetic material.

A review article from 2010 summarizes the results of numerous studies in animals that showed that prenatal stress negatively influenced brain development. Psychological consequences such as learning and memory problems as a result of this physical impairment are also discussed for humans. Here, the researchers are particularly interested in difficult language acquisition, the increase in autism, depression in adulthood, impaired cognitive development and increased anxiety. Maternal depression during pregnancy also has a negative effect on the fetus: the fetuses appear to be more active, their EEG has changed, their birth weight is reduced, their growth is slowed and premature births are more common. The hormonal status of the newborns often resembles that of their mothers with increased cortisol levels and decreased serotonin and dopamine levels.

The experience of pain seems to have already developed intrauterine. Studies show different levels of hormone release in fetuses, depending on whether a vein is punctured outside or inside the fetal body (increased release of the stress hormone cortisol and beta-endorphin). This is taken as evidence of fetal pain experience.

Prenatal psychological theories and research in the field of psychoanalysis and depth psychology

In psychoanalysis, the assumption of a fetal soul life is controversial. Freud assumed that childbirth was the first frightening event in a person's life. However, this event has no psychological content, since the fetus has no object.

Most psychoanalytic theories place the development of objects, self and consciousness in the postnatal period of early childhood. However, some psychoanalysts expressly assume that pre- and perinatal psychological aspects are responsible for certain symptom formation. In addition to Rank, these theorists also include Nandor Fodor, Francis J. Mott, Donald Winnicott, Gustav Hans Graber and Ludwig Janus . Their prenatal psychological theories in the field of psychoanalysis and depth psychology share the assumption that the structuring of the unconscious begins in the prenatal period. Accordingly, the fetus has early emotionally relevant experiences. This includes, for example, perceptions in the various sensory modalities, oxygen deficiency, fearful situations and experiences of stress that are internalized in a way that can be remembered. The baby is born with some sort of memory of these early experiences.

In psychoanalysis, pre- and perinatal issues are usually viewed as fantasies. The manifest prenatal content - such as swimming underwater, staying in caves, fighting underwater monsters - is then understood as a temporal back projection into the early phase. Janus assumes that in many psychoanalytic approaches there are close substantive and phenomenological references to prenatal psychological considerations, although there is no explicit reference. Janus therefore wrote of the "hidden presence of the prenatal lifetime" in the work of psychoanalysts such as Sándor Ferenczi , Carl Gustav Jung , Melanie Klein , Bela Grunberger, Françoise Dolto and others.

Otto Rank

Otto Rank 1929
Stages of birth

In 1924 Otto Rank (1884–1939) published his book The Trauma of Childbirth and its Significance for Psychoanalysis . In the course of theoretical and personal conflicts between Freud and Rank, their friendship finally broke. Rank assumed that every birth leads to an overwhelming experience of fear in the fetus (universal birth trauma ). He suspected that this trauma could trigger numerous fears. He further assumed that at least the late prenatal period can be remembered in certain aspects. Thus Rank had already developed a prenatal psychology. He applied this to cultural aspects. For example, he understood the Christian notions of hell to be the consequences of the “intrauterine situation with negative signs”. In his book he dealt with the interpretation of symbols, works of art and myths in the light of pre- and perinatal psychological assumptions.

Donald W. Winnicott

Donald W. Winnicott (1896–1971) dealt with very early forms of symbol formation. In various case reports he described the reappearance of perinatal experiences. For example, in Winnicott's therapy sessions, a five-year-old boy would climb on top of him, crawl through his jacket, and then slide down his pant leg to the floor. He repeated this process over and over again. Winnicott interpreted the game as a regression and a repetition of birth. He believed that some babies develop paranoid experiences because of problems during childbirth (such as lack of oxygen). In particular, he interpreted psychosomatic symptoms (such as headaches, chest and breathing difficulties and downright suffocating feelings) as possible secondary effects of perinatal problems. However, he rejected the concept of a universal birth trauma.

Nandor Fodor

In his 1949 work The search for the beloved , the British-American psychoanalyst Fodor (1895–1964) traced certain forms of fear back to unprocessed birth experiences. In this he largely followed Rank's design. Fodor also dealt with dreams, states of shortness of breath, claustrophobia and sexual disorders, the genesis of which he placed in connection with pre- and perinatal conditions.

Francis John Mott

Francis J. Mott (1901–1980) was a student of Fodor. He was probably the first theorist to deal with the placenta as the first object of the fetus. He wrote that the fetus feared the placenta as a "blood-sucking monster" or experienced it as a "feeder" or "life giver". He placed prenatal psychological aspects in a larger mystical relation to the order of the universe, which ultimately makes his work a highly speculative, quasi-religious draft.

Gustav Hans Graber

Gustav Hans Graber (1893–1982), a Swiss psychoanalyst, was a pioneer in pre- and perinatal psychology. His dissertation The Ambivalence of the Child was rejected by Freud. Graber's approach is similar to that of Rank, whose book appeared that year. In 1971 Graber became a co-founder and first chairman of the International Study Group for Prenatal Psychology in Vienna.

Prenatal Psychology and LSD Research

Important impulses for the depth psychological consideration of the prenatal period come from LSD research. The German psychiatrist Hanscarl Leuner (1919–1996) and the Czech psychiatrist Stanislav Grof (* 1931) did pioneering work here. In 1962, Leuner described the experiences of his patients under the influence of LSD in Die experimental Psychose . Without establishing a relationship with the prenatal experience of the fetus himself, these hallucinative scenes act like reactivation of pre- and perinatal experiences. For example, some patients hallucinated fights with octopuses or spiders, which prenatal psychologists see as prototypical symbols of the placenta. In Topography of the Unconscious of 1975, Grof interpreted the experience of his patients in the LSD intoxication directly with the help of his prenatal psychological conceptions (the so-called “ perinatal matrices ”). Like numerous prenatal psychologists, in the course of his theory developments he increasingly placed these prenatal psychological considerations in a quasi-mystical context with comprehensive world designs. Nonetheless, Grof influenced the work of deMause, who did not adopt the metaphysical implications.

Lloyd deMause

The American social scientist Lloyd deMause (* 1931) compiled in an essay from 1981 both the various psychoanalytic theoretical approaches to the prenatal period and the already numerous empirical findings on the physiological peculiarities of human ontogeny. The supply of the fetus by the placenta, especially with oxygen, plays a major role. From this, deMause developed his own approach, which is still the most comprehensive draft of prenatal psychology. He assumes that the placenta becomes the first occupied object of the fetus in two split versions, one positive and one negative, which he called "nourishing" and "poisoning" placenta. DeMause believed that every pregnancy - especially towards the end - causes problems with the oxygen supply to the fetus. For physiological reasons, the placenta is then no longer able to provide sufficient oxygen supply. This leads to distress and deficiency states in the fetus. Pre- and perinatal experiences create a kind of psychological script, a kind of template on which the later experiences are classified and internalized. He called the prenatal experience of alternating good and painful states the "fetal drama". DeMause did not see the birth experience as a trauma, but rather emphasized the role of birth as a kind of liberation from the narrow space of the uterus and the lack of oxygen at the end of pregnancy. In addition to the genuinely prenatal psychological considerations, deMause mainly developed his approach of a psychohistory , i.e. a system of cultural psychological theorems that are supposed to connect historical processes and phenomena with psychological aspects. Childhood history and prenatal psychological aspects play a central role.

Alessandra Piontelli

Ultrasound video recording of an eleven week old fetus

The Italian neuropsychiatrist Alessandra Piontelli (* 1945) presented an empirical study on the behavior of mature fetuses in 1992, in which she presented the results of her examinations of eleven fetuses using ultrasound technology ( sonography ). Later follow-up examinations of twin pregnancies also showed a complex repertoire of behavior in the fetuses, which differed greatly from one another in terms of their forms of activity. They respond to stimuli in complex ways. Piontelli's study suggested that certain prenatal experiences shape postnatal life. Psychological features such as increased oral activity can be recognized prenatally and also appear after birth. Follow-up examinations in infancy were interpreted by her in a psychoanalytic way. There was an extensive continuity of pre- and postnatal development. The study by Piontelli is remarkable in that it collects empirical data on the one hand and examines individual cases pre- and postnatally in the sense of a longitudinal study on the other . The study thus shows a combination of both the scientific understanding of academic psychology and the hermeneutics of the psychoanalytic schools. That makes this study extremely illustrative and unique in the scientific landscape.

literature

  • Anthony J. DeCasper, William P. Fifer: Of Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers' Voices. In: Science. 208 (4448), 1980, pp. 1174-1176.
  • Lloyd deMause : The fetal origins of history. In: The Journal of Psychohistory. 9 (1), 1981, pp. 1-89.
  • Lloyd deMause: The Fetal Origins of the Story. In: Lloyd deMause: Basics of Psychohistory. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1989, pp. 230-349.
  • Klaus Evertz, Ludwig Janus, Rupert Linder: Textbook of Prenatal Psychology. Mattes, Heidelberg 2014.
  • Klaus Evertz, Ludwig Janus, Rupert Linder: Handbook of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology. Springer, Heidelberg, New York 2020.
  • Nandor Fodor: The Search For the Beloved. A Clinical Investigation of the Trauma of Birth and Pre-Natal Conditioning. Hermitage Press, New York 1949.
  • Ralph Frenken: Symbol Placenta: The Prenatal Psychology of Art. Springer, Wiesbaden 2015.
  • Gustav Hans Graber (Hrsg.): Prenatal Psychology: the exploration of prenatal perceptions and sensations. Kindler, Munich 1974.
  • Peter G. Hepper: The beginnings of the mind: evidence from the behavior of the fetus. In: Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 12, 1994, pp. 143-154.
  • David K. James: Fetal Learning: a Critical Review. In: Infant and Child Development. 19, 2010, pp. 45-54.
  • Ludwig Janus : The psychoanalysis of the prenatal lifetime and the birth. Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1993.
  • Otwin Linderkamp, ​​Ludwig Janus, Rupert Linder, Dagmar Beate Skoruppa: Developmental steps of the fetal brain. In: International Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Medicine. 21 (1/2), 2009, pp. 91-105.
  • Francis J. Mott: The nature of the self. Wingate, London 1959.
  • Heinz FR Prechtl: How does behavior develop before the birth. In: Carsten Niemitz (Hrsg.): Heritage and Environment: On the nature of human disposition and self-determination. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987, pp. 141-155.
  • Alessandra Piontelli: From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. London 1992. (German: From the fetus to the child: About the origin of psychic life. A psychoanalytical observational study, Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1996).
  • Otto Rank: The trauma of childbirth and its significance for psychoanalysis. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1988.
  • Donald W. Winnicott: Birth Memories, Birth Trauma and Anxiety. In: Collected Papers: Through Pediatrics to Psychoanalysis. Routledge, New York 1949, pp. 174-193.

See also

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Provide an overview of the area: Lloyd deMause : The fetal origins of history. In: Lloyd deMause: Basics of Psychohistory. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1989, pp. 230-349 (pp. 233-249); Ludwig Janus : The psychoanalysis of the prenatal lifetime and the birth. Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1993, pp. 1-72; Ralph Frenken: Symbol Placenta: The Prenatal Psychology of Art. Springer, Wiesbaden 2015, pp. 5–61.
  2. ^ Otwin Linderkamp, ​​Ludwig Janus, Rupert Linder, Dagmar Beate Skoruppa: Developmental steps of the fetal brain. In: International Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Medicine. 21 (1/2), 2009, (p. 91–105), p. 91. Similar: Carolin Sheridan Hubert Preissl, Niels Birbaumer: How does the fetal brain react to stimuli? Investigations with fetal magnetoencephalography. In: Karl Heinz Brisch, Theodor Hellbrügge (Ed.): The infant: attachment, neurobiology and genes. Basics for prevention, counseling and therapy. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2008, p. 32.
  3. ^ Otwin Linderkamp, ​​Ludwig Janus, Rupert Linder, Dagmar Beate Skoruppa: Developmental steps of the fetal brain. In: International Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Medicine. 21 (1/2), 2009, p. 99.
  4. ↑ Davenport Hooker: The Prenatal Origin of Behavior. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas 1952.
  5. ↑ Heinz FR Prechtl: How does the behavior develop before the birth. In: Carsten Niemitz (Hrsg.): Heritage and Environment: On the nature of human disposition and self-determination. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987, (pp. 141–155), p. 142.
  6. ↑ Alessandra Piontelli: From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. London 1992, p. 28.
  7. ↑ Heinz FR Prechtl: How does the behavior develop before the birth. In: Carsten Niemitz (Hrsg.): Heritage and Environment: On the nature of human disposition and self-determination. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987 (pp. 141-155), p. 143.
  8. ↑ Heinz FR Prechtl: How does the behavior develop before the birth. In: Carsten Niemitz (Hrsg.): Heritage and Environment: On the nature of human disposition and self-determination. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1987 (pp. 141-155), p. 146; Alessandra Piontelli: From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. London 1992, p. 32.
  9. ↑ Alessandra Piontelli: From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. London 1992, p. 31.
  10. ↑ PG Hepper: Fetal memory: Does it exist? What does it do? In: Acta Paeditrica. supplement, 416, 1996, pp. 16-20. (P. 17).
  11. ↑ PG Hepper: Fetal memory: Does it exist? What does it do? In: Acta Paeditrica. supplement, 416, 1996, pp. 16-20 (p. 17).
  12. ↑ PG Hepper: Fetal memory: Does it exist? What does it do? In: Acta Paeditrica. supplement, 416, 1996, pp. 16-20 (p. 17).
  13. ↑ See Daniel N. Stern: Die Lebenserlebnis des Säuglings. Klett-Cotta: Stuttgart 1993, p. 65 ff.
  14. ↑ JW Goldkrand, BL Litvack: Demonstration of fetal habituation and patterns of fetal heart rate response to vibroacoustic stimulation in normal and high-risk pregnancies. In: Journal of Perinatology. 11 (1), 1991, pp. 25-29. (P. 25).
  15. ↑ Chantal EH Dirix, Jan G. Nijhuis, Gerard Hornstra: Aspects of Fetal Learning and Memory. In: Child Development. 80 (4), 2009, pp. 1251-1258.
  16. ^ LR Leader, P. Baillie, B. Martin, E. Vermeulen: The assessment and significance of habituation to a repeated stimulus by the human fetus. In: Early Human Development. 7 (3), 1982, pp. 211-219 (p. 211).
  17. ↑ PG Hepper: The beginnings of the mind: evidence from the behavior of the fetus. In: Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 12, 1994, pp. 143-154. (P. 143).
  18. ^ William P. Smotherman, Scott R. Robinson: Classical conditioning of opioid activity in the fetal rat. In: Behavioral Neuroscience. 108 (5), 1994, pp. 951-961.
  19. ^ W. Ernest Freud: Remaining in Touch. Collected Writings 1965–2000. On the importance of the continuity of early relationship experiences. Consequences of psychoanalytic developmental psychology for the prophylaxis of early damage. Edition Déjà-vu, Frankfurt am Main 2003, ISBN 3-9805317-4-0 .
  20. ↑ DK James, CJB Spencer, BW Stepsis: Fetal learning: a prospective randomized controlled study. In: Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 20, 2002, pp. 431-438. Richard Ferner Parncutt: Prenatal development. In: GE McPherson (Ed.): The child as musician. Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 1-31.
  21. ^ Anthony J. DeCasper, William P. Fifer, Of Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers' Voices. In: Science. 208 (4448), 1980, pp. 1174-1176.
  22. ↑ Review in: David K. James: Fetal Learning: a Critical Review. In: Infant and Child Development. 19, 2010, pp. 45-54.
  23. ↑ Janet A. DiPietro, Kathleen A. Costigan, Edith D. Gurewitsch: Fetal response to induced maternal stress. In: Early Human Development. 74 (2), 2003, pp. 125-138.
  24. ↑ Janet A. DiPietro, Kathleen A. Costigan, Priscilla Nelson, Edith D. Gurewitsch, Mark L. Laudenslager: Fetal responses to induced maternal relaxation during pregnancy. In: Biological Psychology. 77, 2008, p. 11. 19.
  25. ↑ D. Barker, PD Winter, C. Osmond, B. Margetts, SJ Simmonds: Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. In: The Lancet. 9 (2), 1989, pp. 577-580.
  26. ↑ A. Plagemann: 'Fetal programming' and 'functional teratogenesis': on epigenetic mechanisms and prevention of perinatally acquired lasting health risks. In: Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 32 (4), 2004, pp. 297-305. Andreas Plagemann, Thomas Harder, Karen Schellong, Elke Rodekamp, ​​Joachim W. Dudenhausen: Fetal programming in intrauterine milieu disorders - basic mechanisms using the example of body weight and metabolic regulation. In: Gynecological-obstetric review. 48, 2008, pp. 215-224.
  27. ↑ A. Charil, DPM Laplante, C. Vaillancourt, S. King: Prenatal stress and brain development. In: Brain Research Reviews. 65 (1), 2010, pp. 56-79.
  28. ↑ Kristin Bergman, Pampar Sarkar, Thomas O'Connor, Neena Modi, Vivette Glover: Maternal Stress During Pregnancy Predicts Cognitive Ability and Fearfulness in Infancy. In: Journal of American Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (11), 2007, pp. 1454-1463.
  29. ↑ Tiffany Field, Miguel Diego, Maria Hernandez-Reif: Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and newborn: a review. In: Infant Behavior & Development. 29, 2006, pp. 445-455.
  30. ^ X. Giannakoulopoulos, V. Glover, W. Sepulveda, P. Kourtis, NM Fisk: Fetal plasma cortisol and β-endorphin response to intrauterine needling. In: The Lancet. 344 (8915), 1994, pp. 77-81.
  31. ↑ Sigmund Freud: Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety. In: GW XIV. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1926, pp. 111–205.
  32. ↑ Ludwig Janus: The psychoanalysis of the prenatal lifetime and the birth. Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1993, pp. 21-75.
  33. ↑ Ludwig Janus: The psychoanalysis of the prenatal lifetime and the birth. Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1993, p. 55.
  34. ↑ Robert Kramer: Insight and Blindness: To the topicality of Otto Rank. In: Psyche. 53, 1999, pp. 158-200.
  35. ↑ Otto Rank: The trauma of childbirth and its significance for psychoanalysis. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1988, p. 98.
  36. ↑ Otto Rank: The trauma of childbirth and its significance for psychoanalysis. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1988, p. 142.
  37. ^ Donald W. Winnicott: Birth Memories, Birth Trauma and Anxiety. In: Collected Papers: Through Pediatrics to Psychoanalysis. Routledge, New York 1949, (pp. 174-193), pp. 177 ff.
  38. ^ Donald W. Winnicott: Birth Memories, Birth Trauma and Anxiety. In: Collected Papers: Through Pediatrics to Psychoanalysis. Routledge, New York 1949, (pp. 174-193), pp. 185 ff.
  39. ^ Nandor Fodor, (1949). The Search For the Beloved. A Clinical Investigation of the Trauma of Birth and Pre-Natal Conditioning. New York: Hermitage Press. Pp. 35 ff., 40 ff., 265 ff.
  40. ↑ Lloyd DeMause: The Fetal Origins of History. In: Lloyd deMause: Basics of Psychohistory. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1989, (p. 230-349), p. 230 ff.
  41. ^ Francis J. Mott: The nature of the self. Wingate, London 1959, pp. 181 f., P. 82 ff.
  42. ↑ Hanscarl Leuner: The experimental psychosis: its psychopharmacology, phenomenology and dynamics in relation to the person. Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg 1962, p. 148 ff.
  43. ↑ Lloyd DeMause: The Fetal Origins of History. In: Lloyd deMause: Basics of Psychohistory. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1989, (pp. 230-349), pp. 257 f. Ralph Frenken: Symbol Placenta: The Prenatal Psychology of Art. Springer, Wiesbaden 2015, p. 46 f.
  44. ↑ Stanislav Grof: Topography of the Unconscious: LSD in the Service of Depth Psychological Research. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1975, p. 122ff.
  45. ↑ Ralph Frenken: Symbol Placenta: The Prenatal Psychology of Art. Springer, Wiesbaden 2015, p. 21 ff.
  46. ↑ Lloyd deMause: The Fetal Origins of History. In: Lloyd deMause: Basics of Psychohistory. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1989, (p. 230-349), p. 250 ff.
  47. ↑ Alessandra Piontelli: From Fetus to Child: An Observational and Psychoanalytic Study. London 1992.
  48. ↑ Alessandra Piontelli, Luisa Bocconi, Chiara Boschetto, Alessandra Kustermann, Umberto Nicolini: Differences and similarities in the intra-uterine behavior of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. In: Twin Research. 1999, 2, pp. 264–273 (p. 270 ff.)